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"totitle": "Eastern Prickly Pear",
"*": "<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-lineno\" id=\"mw-diff-left-l1\">Line 1:</td>\n<td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-lineno\">Line 1:</td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div><del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><strong>MediaWiki has been installed</del>.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></strong></del></div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">'''Eastern Prickly Pear''' (''Opuntia humifusa'') is a cactus of eastern North America and it is the only cactus native to Connecticut.\u00a0 It is sometimes also known as '''Indian Fig''' or '''Devil's Tongue'''</ins>.</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\"></td><td class=\"diff-context diff-side-deleted\"><br></td><td class=\"diff-marker\"></td><td class=\"diff-context diff-side-added\"><br></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div><del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Consult </del>the <del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[https://www</del>.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents User's Guide] for information </del>on <del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">using the wiki software</del>.</div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">This cactus is only found in a limited number of locations throughout </ins>the <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">state, owing to very specific habitat requirements and dispersal patterns that are only vaguely understood</ins>. <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"> Most often these cactus colonies are found along the coastal regions of Connecticut, but they can also be found in isolated locations </ins>on <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">rocky inland ledges and forest glades</ins>.</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\"></td><td class=\"diff-context diff-side-deleted\"><br></td><td class=\"diff-marker\"></td><td class=\"diff-context diff-side-added\"><br></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div>== <del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Getting started </del>==</div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">I have confirmed the existence of six (6) colonies and two (2) complexes of ''O. humifusa'' in eight towns in Connecticut: Bridgeport, Guilford, Hamden, Milford, New Haven, Old Saybrook, Plainville and Stratford.\u00a0 My research has revealed that further colonies can be found in Branford, Darien and Norwalk, however I have not yet personally verified the existence of these colonies.\u00a0 Historic records suggest that ''O. humifusa'' colonies also existed in Beacon Falls, Burlington, Franklin, Naugatuck, Oxford, Scotland, Seymour and Wilton at one time.\u00a0 However, because many of these records are over 100 years old, the colonies to which they refer may no longer exist.\u00a0 For example, extensive explorations of Beacon Falls have yet to reveal the continued of existence of ''O. humifusa'' which was known to be common there in the late 19th-century. </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div><del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">* </del>[<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">https</del>://www.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">mediawiki</del>.org/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">wiki</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Special</del>:<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">MyLanguage</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Manual</del>:<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Configuration_settings Configuration settings </del>list]</div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div><del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">* </del>[<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">https</del>://www.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">mediawiki</del>.org/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">wiki</del>/Special:<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">MyLanguage</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Manual</del>:<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">FAQ MediaWiki FAQ</del>]</div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Distribution in Connecticut ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div><del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">* </del>[<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">https</del>://<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">lists</del>.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">wikimedia</del>.org/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">postorius</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">lists</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">mediawiki</del>-<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">announce</del>.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">lists</del>.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">wikimedia</del>.org/ <del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">MediaWiki release mailing list</del>]</div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div><del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">* [https</del>://www.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">mediawiki</del>.org/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">wiki</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Special</del>:<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">MyLanguage</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Localisation</del>#<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Translation_resources Localise MediaWiki </del>for <del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">your language</del>]</div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Opuntia-humifusa-distribution.png|right|thumb|Distribution of ''O. humifusa'' in Connecticut, based upon my field explorations and research.]]''O. humifusa'' is extraordinarily fragmented in its distribution throughout the state, even in coastal regions where the concentration is highest.\u00a0 This generally characterizes the species throughout all of its range in the Northeast United States.\u00a0 Even as early as 1900, for example, an issue of Popular Science magazine erroneously speculated that three colonies of ''O. humifusa'' found growing on Hook Mountain in New York might be \"either the descendants of a stray from cultivation or, perhaps, purposely planted there by some enthusiast\".<ref name=\"popsci-1900\">Wallace, W. Seward. \"Prickly Pear on Hook Mountain.\" ''Popular Science''. Nov 1900: n. page. Print. <http://books.google.com/books?id=BRtbAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"\u2212\"></td><td class=\"diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted\"><div><del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">* </del>[<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">https</del>://www.<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">mediawiki</del>.org/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">wiki</del>/Special:<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">MyLanguage</del>/<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Manual</del>:<del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Combating_spam Learn how </del>to <del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">combat spam </del>on <del class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">your wiki</del>]</div></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In most Connecticut towns where I have confirmed the presence of ''O. humifusa'', the colonies are found only in very isolated locations despite the fact that they are in close proximity to similarly suitable habitat.\u00a0 For this reason, it seems highly probable that ''O. humifusa'' living in Connecticut are not especially adept at long-distance seed dispersal, instead relying largely upon vegetative reproductive techniques which promote colony health in the immediate vicinity but accomplish little in the way of range expansion.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Habitat in Connecticut ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although many species in the ''Opuntia'' genus have been widely and thoroughly studied throughout the world, much of this research applies only loosely to Connecticut populations of ''Opuntia humifusa''.\u00a0 ''O. humifusa'' is exceptionally unique in its ability to live and grow much further north than the vast majority of other ''Opuntia'' spp.\u00a0 It possesses a number of special adaptations that allow it to thrive in Connecticut's environment such as, for example, an unusually high tolerance to freezing temperatures.\u00a0 These unique adaptations contribute to habits which are unique to ''O. humifusa'' and, in some cases, differ significantly from other ''Opuntia'' spp.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">However, the situation is made even more complex by the fact that the far northern extent of ''O. humifusa'''s range in New England begins to taper off in Northern Connecticut.\u00a0 In other words, Connecticut represents transitional territory, from rather suitable habitat along the southern coast to entirely unsuitable (or nearly unsuitable) habitat in the far north.\u00a0 Because the range extent of ''O. humifusa'' tapers off within Connecticut, we are likely to see a number of peculiarities in Connecticut's populations that derive from the fact that some environmental needs are only barely being satisfied by available habitat and conditions.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">''O. humifusa'' can be found in two distinct types of habitats within Connecticut: 1) low-elevation, coastal, sandy scrubland and 2) mid- to high-elevation, inland rocky ridges.\u00a0 For as much as these two habitat types are outwardly different, they generally offer very similar climate conditions.\u00a0 Both habitats typically possess a yearly average temperature which is slightly higher than that of Connecticut as whole, they offer extended exposure to full sunlight, and are both xeric habitats that possess dry, well-drained substrate.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">''O. humifusa'' only persists in locations where several hours of exposure to direct sunlight can be obtained on a daily basis.\u00a0 A study of ''O. humifusa'' colonies in Ohio, for example, found that the cacti ceased to flower when subjected to shade by recent encroaching tree growth.<ref name=\"ohio-study\">Abella, Scott R., and John F. Jaeger. ''Ecology of Eastern Prickly Pear Cactus (Opuntia Humifusa) in Oak Openings Preserve, Northwestern Ohio''. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library, 2004. Print. <http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.0497763.0043.101>.</ref>\u00a0 As such, the absence of shade trees and dense, fast-growing shrubs in the immediate vicinity of the ''O. humifusa'' colony is imperative to its health and continued existence.\u00a0 Thus, not all coastal scrubland or rocky ridges necessarily provide sufficient habitat.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Northern Range Limit ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:O-humifusa-range-limit-by-rhodora.png|thumb|right|Map of Southern New England portraying proposed range limit for ''O. humifusa'' of 42&deg; N latitude and various known colonies.<ref name=\"rhodora\">Wallace, Robert S., and David E. Fairbrothers. \"The New England Distribution of ''Opuntia humifusa'' (Raf.) Raf.\" ''Rhodora: Journal of the New England Botanical Club''. 89.859 (1987): 327-332. Print. <http://ia600704.us.archive.org/20/items/cbarchive_35776_thenewenglanddistributionofopu9999/thenewenglanddistributionofopu9999.pdf>.</ref>]]An evaluation of documented ''Opuntia humifusa'' colonies of New England\u00a0 and the Northern-Central United States (from earliest records to 1987) has demonstrated that the northern range limit of the species is approximately 42&deg; N latitude.<ref name=\"rhodora\"></ref>\u00a0 There are a few reports of ''O. humifusa'' found living north of this line of latitude, but such reports are scarce and possibly erroneous, either representing populations introduced by humans or misidentification of other, more-northerly cactus species for ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The proposed northern range limit of 42&deg; N runs just south of Connecticut's northern border, such that the state contains a transitional region where ''O. humifusa'' thrives along the southern coastline but is almost never found in the northern half of the state.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Temperature ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Usda_zone-map_ct_ri.jpg|thumb|USDA Zone Map of Connecticut, showing yearly average minimum temperature.]]Because temperature is widely acknowledged as a major factor in the ability of ''O. humifusa'' to establish itself in a particular locale, it is instructive to examine the location of known Connecticut colonies in juxtaposition with the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Zone Map of Connecticut.\u00a0 The USDA Zones Map shades various areas of the state based upon average extreme minimum temperature.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Zone 7a is warmest in Connecticut, with mean minimum temperatures of between 0&deg;F and 5&deg;F.\u00a0 The range of this zone in Connecticut is very limited, extending in a narrow band along western coastal regions of the state, as well as the farthest eastern coastline.\u00a0 Approximately 42% of the ''O. humifusa'' colonies I have observed (3 of 7 colonies) fall within Zone 7a.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Zone 6b covers most of the southern half of Connecticut and is characterized by a mean minimum temperature of between -5&deg;F and 0&deg;F.\u00a0 Approximately 42% of the ''O. humifusa'' colonies I have observed (3 of 7 colonies) can be found in Zone 6b.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Zone 6a covers most of the northern half of Connecticut, with the exception of the northwestern corner of the state.\u00a0 Mean minimum temperatures in the zone range from -10&deg;F to -5&deg;F.\u00a0 Only one colony, the [[#Metacomet Colony (Plainville)|Metacomet Colony]] in Plainville, falls within this zone.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Zone 5b represents the coldest regions of Connecticut, with mean minimum temperatures ranging from -15&deg;F to -10&deg;F.\u00a0 Only the northwestern hills of Connecticut fall within this coldest zone.\u00a0 I have not documented any colonies within this zone, nor have I found any historic data suggesting that ''O. humifusa'' ever lived there.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although confirmed colonies of ''O. humifusa'' can be found in 3 of the 4 zones of Connecticut, the cactus clearly shows a preference for Zone 7a and 6b.\u00a0 Currently, 85% of the colonies I have photo-documented grow within these adjacent zones.\u00a0 Furthermore, if we include known colonies that I have yet to document, that number can likely be raised even higher, with as much as 90% - 95% of Connecticut's total biomass of ''O. humifusa'' growing within Zones 7a and 6b.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Coastal Sand Dunes ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Historically, coastal towns of Connecticut have always harbored the majority of Connecticut's ''O. humifusa'' colonies.\u00a0 Although coastal areas of Connecticut still possess the greatest concentration of ''O. humifusa'', it is believed that \"development of coastal habitats has probably extirpated all but a select few populations in Connecticut.\"<ref name=\"rhodora\"></ref> Thus, over the last 150 years, ''O. humifusa'' has experienced a widespread decline in population throughout this historic coastal stronghold.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In my research, \"coastal colonies\" are defined as those colonies living no more than 1000 feet from Long Island Sound (this category also includes those colonies of ''O. humifusa'' found on islands off the coast of Connecticut).\u00a0 Any colonies living in Connecticut north of this boundary are considered \"inland colonies\" for the purposes of my research.\u00a0 Typically, \"coastal colonies\" are found at elevations not exceeding 40 feet above mean sea level (AMSL), though strictly speaking, elevation is not a determining factor in their categorization as \"coastal\" and some coastal colonies may occur at higher elevations.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Habitat Requirements ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== Substrate Stability =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A study was performed in Canada's Point Pelee National Park in which juvenile ''O. humifusa'' cacti were planted on a sandy beach and monitored to determine the suitability of that habitat for use during future restoration projects.\u00a0 This study revealed what may be the most important limiting factor in the viability of sandy, coastal regions as long-term ''humifusa'' habitat.\u00a0 It was determined that \"sand burial took a toll in terms of survival and plant size\" and that ''O. humifusa'' \"may not tolerate disturbance in mobile sandy substrates\".<ref name=\"pointpelee-study\">VanDerWal, Jeremy J., and Lesley Lovett-Doust. ''Habitat definition of Opuntia humifusa using seedling transplants along a successional gradient at Point Pelee National Park''. Department of Biology, University of Windsor, 2003. Web. <http://web4.uwindsor.ca/users/b/b87/GARP.nsf/bab13a777f84009f85256ea600759a11/48edd5d31581e083852570350048e9f3/$FILE/Habitat Definition report 2003.pdf>.</ref>\u00a0 The study later goes on to state that \"their numbers declined such that there would be no</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">survivors after 2-3 more years, if the current rate of mortality continued\" and that \"self-sustaining populations could not be established...since</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">transplants would not live long enough to reach sufficient size to flower and bear fruit.\" <ref name=\"pointpelee-study\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The results of this study do not indicate that ''all'' sandy coastal habitats are unsuitable as ''O. humifusa'' habitat.\u00a0 Indeed, the colonies present at Milford and Stratford, Connecticut are evidence to the contrary.\u00a0 Instead, the study helps us to distinguish suitable coastal habitat from unsuitable habitat.\u00a0 We can conclude that the ability of a given sandy coastal area in Connecticut to provide suitable, long-term habitat for ''O. humifusa'' cacti is likely to hinge upon the substrate stability of the site.\u00a0 Any factor which could lead to intermittent, partial burial of the cacti by sand, such as frequent flooding or unobstructed wind, would only serve to weaken the plants.\u00a0 In other words, classic sand dunes and other sandy coastal areas which are mostly devoid of plant life and subject to episodic disturbance by wind or water are unsuitable ''O. humifusa'' habitat, while stable-substrate, erosion-resistant, sandy coastal scrubland offers suitable habitat.\u00a0 </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The ''O. humifusa'' colonies observed at Milford (Milford Point Colony) and Stratford, Connecticut (Short Beach Colony) seem to support this claim.\u00a0 For instance, it seems counter-intuitive that ''O. humifusa'' would be found interspersed throughout the sand alongside taller trees and shrubs which would undoubtedly serve to reduce the length of time during which full, unobstructed sunlight is available.\u00a0 However, it may well be that these trees and shrubs provide crucial substrate stability both by acting as a windbreak and due to the fact that the accompanying network of roots affords an added measure of erosion resistance.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== Substrate Salinity & Salt Spray =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Because coastal colonies of ''O. humifusa'' grow upon habitat which may possess exceptionally high levels of dissolved salts (as well as be subject to occasional flooding by saltwater), it is of interest to explore how coastal specimens deal with excess salts.\u00a0 It has been observed that colonies of ''O. humifusa'' living in the immediate vicinity of the seashore \"accumulated more Na<sup>+</sup> in their cladodes and appeared to be better adapted to aerial salt spray as well as episodal high salinity in the root medium than inland individuals\".<ref name=\"salinity\">L\u00e4uchli, Andr\u00e9, and Ulrich L\u00fcttge. ''Salinity: Environment - Plants - Molecules''. Springer, 2002. 342. Print.<http://books.google.com/books?id=eZzqw9HUbW8C&pg=PA342&dq=humifusa+cactus&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cwDFT6upJ7PJsQK5xsHgCQ&ved=0CEoQ6AEwAzgy#v=onepage&q=humifusa%20cactus&f=false></ref>\u00a0 Thus, ''O. humifusa'' is accommodating of high-salinity, even developing certain tolerances to high levels of dissolved salts which aren't possessed by cacti of the same species from inland colonies.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Inland Rocky Ridges ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Even as early as the mid-1800s, it was observed by botanists that ''O. humifusa'' colonies were very fragmented in their inland distribution.\u00a0 I would estimate, based upon historic records and my own field examinations of extant colonies, that there may be as many as a dozen inland colonies in the state, perhaps less.\u00a0 I have thus far confirmed only five inland colonies in four towns (Hamden, New Haven, Old Saybrook and Plainville), though my research has revealed that at least eight inland towns in Connecticut were historically known to host wild ''O. humifusa'' colonies.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Indeed, research reveals that ''O. humifusa'' colonies on rocky or sandy inland habitats were once much more common than they are today.\u00a0 In all likelihood, many inland colonies have been lost to the natural process of forest succession whereby areas that were cleared for timber or previously maintained as open pastures are abandoned (generally between 1650 and 1850) and recolonized, first by shrubs and pioneer trees and eventually by thick forest.\u00a0 Since ''O. humifusa'' requires full sunlight, a good number of colonies are likely to have perished as the forest regenerated and shaded them out.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In my research, \"inland colonies\" are defined as those colonies living on the mainland that are more than 1000 feet from Long Island Sound.\u00a0 This category also includes those colonies of ''O. humifusa'' that may be found nearby inland riparian habitats.\u00a0 Any colonies living further south than this boundary are considered \"coastal colonies\" for the purposes of my research.\u00a0 Typically, \"inland colonies\" are discovered at elevations no less than 100 feet AMSL, though elevation is not a determining factor in their categorization as \"inland\" colonies and it is possible that inland colonies may be found at lower elevations.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Habitat Requirements ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== Soil & Geology =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><div style=\"float:right; display:inline-block;padding-left:15px;\"></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"text-align: left;\" cellpadding=\"10\"</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">! colspan=\"2\" style=\"color: black; background-color: #ffffcc;\"| Overview of Soil Characteristics of Inland ''O. humifusa'' Habitats</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|-</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">! style=\"color: black; background-color: #ffffcc;text-align: left;\"| Soil Characteristic</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">! style=\"color: black; background-color: #ffffcc;text-align: left;\"| Description</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|-</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| style=\"font-weight: 700;\"| Soil Type</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| 80% : Holyoke-Rock Outcrop Complex (Soil Type 78)<br/>20% : Charlton-Chatfield Complex (Soil Type 73)</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|-</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| style=\"font-weight: 700;\"| Soil Slope Types</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| 60% : 3 to 15 percent slope (Soil Type 78C)<br/>40% : 15 to 45 percent slope (Soil Types 78E & 73E)</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|-</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| style=\"font-weight: 700;\"| Soil Drainage</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| 100% : Well-drained</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|-</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| style=\"font-weight: 700;\"| Soil/Bedrock Reactivity</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| 100% : Extremely acidic to moderately acidic</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|-</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| style=\"font-weight: 700;\"| Soil Composition</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| 100% : loam over glacial till deposits</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|-</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| style=\"font-weight: 700;\"| Bedrock Composition</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">| 60% : (1) diabase, (2) basalt, (3) gabbro<br/>20% : (1) basalt, (2) gabbro<br/>20% : (1) gneiss, (2) granite, (3) schist </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">|}</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></div></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Approximately 80% of the inland ''O. humifusa'' colonies that I have thus far discovered are found upon terrain with a soil type described as '''Holyoke-Rock Outcrop Complex''' (Soil Type 78) by the Soil Survey of the State of Connecticut (SSSCT) produced by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Natural Resources Conservation Service.\u00a0 Of that 80%, approximately 75% of those colony areas can further be sub-classified as exhibiting a 3 to 15 percent slope (Soil Type 78C).\u00a0 The [[#West Rock Dunbar Colony & West Rock Shepard Colony|West Rock Shephard Colony]] of Hamden was found on terrain that is classified as having a 15 to 45 percent slope (Soil Type 78E), however the colony location is very close to the transition line between soil types 78C and 78E and is therefore not a significant outlier.\u00a0 Thus, it can be stated that inland Connecticut ''O. humifusa'' colonies occur frequently on Holyoke-Rock Outcrop Complex with a slope between 3 and 45 degrees (or a mean slope of approximately 19 degrees).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The SSSCT describes Holyoke-Rock Outcrop Complex (78C and 78E) as \"gently sloping to strongly sloping\", \"bedrock-controlled\" hills and ridges \"on uplands\" where the depth to bedrock does not generally exceed 20 inches.\u00a0 The parent material of these habitat areas includes \"loamy eolian deposits over melt-out till derived from basalt and/or sandstone and shale\".\u00a0 Of particular interest is the fact that the soil of Holyoke-Rock Outcrop Complex is typically well-drained and \"extremely acidic to moderately acidic\".<ref name=\"ct-soil-survey\">\"Soil Survey of the State of Connecticut.\" ''Connecticut Environmental Conditions Online''. University of Connecticut, n.d. Web. 18 May 2012. <http://www.cteco.uconn.edu/docs/usda/connecticut.pdf>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Further analysis using the Connecticut Environmental Conditions Online (CTECO) GIS Map of Critical Habitats revealed that 60% of Connecticut's confirmed inland ''O. humifusa'' colonies are found on habitat that is designated as '''Subacidic Rocky Summit Outcrops''' (SubRSO).\u00a0 CTECO describes these habitat areas as \"dry to xeric exposed summits, ledges and other outcrops\", noting the geologic composition to be \"primarily basalt and other mafic rocks\", where vegetation is typically restricted to \"low shrubs, grasses and herbs\". <ref name=\"cteco-criticalhabitats\">\"Connecticut Critical Habitats.\" ''Connecticut Environmental Conditions Online''. University of Connecticut, Mar 2011. Web. 18 May 2012. <http://www.cteco.uconn.edu/guides/resource/CT_ECO_Resource_Guide_Critical_Habitat.pdf></ref>\u00a0 While the Metacomet Colony habitat is not identified as Critical Habitat SubRSO, the conditions I observed there are congruent with the habitat description and it is likely this area was incidentally neglected on the CTECO Critical Habitat GIS Map.\u00a0 </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Approximately 60% of confirmed inland colonies are found upon West Rock Ridge in New Haven and Hamden, Connecticut on a bedrock type known as '''West Rock Dolerite''' (USGS Code Jwr).\u00a0 The [[#Metacomet Colony (Plainville)|Metacomet Colony]] in Plainville, Connecticut has a bedrock type defined as '''Holyoke Basalt''' (USGS Code Jho).\u00a0 However, basalt is the common thread between these two bedrock types, with Holyooke Basalt being comprised primarily of basalt with gabbro as a secondary rock type while West Rock Dolerite is primarily composed of diabase with basalt and gabbro as secondary and tertiary rock types.\u00a0 The reactivity of these bedrock types ranges from subacidic (in the case of Holyoke Basalt) to somewhat pH neutral (in the case of West Rock Dolerite).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">All of these observations seem to suggest that ''O. humifusa'' is partial to acidic soil which is rich in diabase, basalt and gabbro.\u00a0 However, this conclusion was seriously challenged when I documented the [[#Ingham Hill Colony (Old Saybrook)|Ingham Hill Colony]] of ''O. humifusa'' in Old Saybrook.\u00a0 The Ingham Hill Colony exists on soil defined as '''Charlton-Chatfield Complex''' (73E) (which contains a mix of granite, schist and gneiss) on a bedrock type defined as '''Monson Gneiss''' (USGS Code Omo).\u00a0 The discovery of this colony seriously undermined my previous conclusion that inland ''O. humifusa'' had a special affinity for traprock ridges and I have since withdrawn my theory that the species exhibited a unanimous preference for basalt.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Instead, it is now my belief that the frequency at which ''O. humifusa'' appears on traprock ridges is merely a reflection of the fact that traprock ridges are especially common in Connecticut.\u00a0 In many towns, the only sunny, exposed ledges are found upon these traprock ridges, so that ''O. humifusa'' simply has nowhere else to grow.\u00a0 I do not believe that ''O. humifusa'' has any special preference for basalt, but that the high rate of occurrence of ''O. humifusa'' on basalt ridges is merely incidental.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">While ''O. humifusa'' may not have any strong preference for soil of a specific composition, there are nonetheless certain characteristics of soil that must be met in order for it to qualify as acceptable habitat for ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 Every inland colony thus far discovered has been found upon soil that is especially well-drained and which is classified as moderately acidic to extremely acidic.\u00a0 These soil characteristics are found at every ''O. humifusa'' colony site, including the unusual Ingham Hill Colony site.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== Elevation =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Prior to the discovery of the [[#Ingham Hill Colony (Old Saybrook)|Ingham Hill Colony]] at Old Saybrook, there seemed to be sufficient evidence that inland colonies of ''O. humifusa'' preferred elevations of between 350 and 550 feet above mean sea level (AMSL).\u00a0 Since the discovery of the Ingham Hill Colony, though, this assertion has been seriosuly challenged and I no longer believe ''O. humifusa'' has any particular elevation preference.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">With the exception of the Ingham Hill Colony, ''O. humifusa'' colonies upon inland ridges certainly present a tight correlation in elevation.\u00a0 The [[#Metacomet Colony (Plainville)|Metacomet Colony]] is at an elevation of ~399 feet AMSL, the West Rock South Colony is at ~429 feet AMSL and both of the northern West Rock colonies range in elevation from ~515 feet AMSL at their highest to ~425 feet AMSL at their lowest.\u00a0 These elevations are tightly clustered between 350 and 550 feet AMSL, which had hitherto lead me to believe that there was some advantageous quality to this range of elevations which ''O. humifusa'' preferred.\u00a0 However, this theory seriously failed to account for those coastal colonies of ''O. humifusa'' that are found at significantly lower elevations (rarely exceeding 30 feet AMSL).\u00a0 This fact was especially troubling when trying to determine some meaningful correlation between suitable ''O. humifusa'' habitat and elevation.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The discovery of the Ingham Hill Colony in Old Saybrook was particularly important, because the ''O. humifusa'' found growing there were at an elevation of roughly 145 feet AMSL.\u00a0 This is the only instance that I have thus far encountered in which ''O. humifusa'' could be found at a distinctly intermediate elevation, significantly lower than colonies found on traprock ridges but significantly higher than colonies found in coastal scrubland.\u00a0 Therefore, I have abandoned my previous suspicion that ''O. humifusa'' prefers elevations between 350 and 550 feet AMSL.\u00a0 Instead, I would submit that the frequency at which inland ''O. humifusa'' occurs at these elevations is simply a product of the terrain of Connecticut, where the rocky cliffs of basalt ridges are very commonly found at elevations between 300 and 600 feet AMSL.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Ingham Hill Colony proved to be something of a missing link, bridging the previously enormous gap in elevation between coastal colonies and inland colonies.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Indicator Species ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Taking into account all of Connecticut's ''Opuntia humifusa'' colonies which I have personally examined, there does not seem to be any single plant community which is especially indicative of the species.\u00a0 That is to say, when we compare flora associated with ''O. humifusa'' on coastal sites to the flora associated with the cactus on inland sites, there is very little correlation.\u00a0 It is instructive, then, to examine these two types of habitats separately. </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Coastal Indicator Species ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Coastal colonies can be found growing in scrubland with a relatively high diversity of plant life including herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees.\u00a0 All of these associate plants are typically found on warm, dry, sandy habitat along the coast.\u00a0 Thus, I have so far been unable to correlate any specific plant species to ''O. humifusa'' on coastal sites.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">There is a very minor degree of correlation between coastal ''O. humifusa'' and coniferous trees.\u00a0 A field exploration of the [[#Short Beach Colony (Stratford)|Short Beach Colony]] in Stratford, Connecticut revealed ''O. humifusa'' growing amongst an unusually dense concentration of ''Toxicodendron radicans'' (Poison Ivy), though I do not have sufficient data at this point in time to believe that this association is anything more than incidental.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===\u00a0 Inland Indicator Species ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Inland colonies have demonstrated an undeniable association with ''Juniperus virginiana'' var. ''virginiana'', a coniferous juniper known commonly as the Eastern Red Cedar.\u00a0 It would seem that the high-elevation inland habitat requirements for ''J. virginiana'' closely mirror those of ''Opuntia humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">To be clear, it is not as if ''O. humifusa'' can be found growing among every high-elevation inland site where ''J. virginiana'' thrives.\u00a0 However, the strong association I've observed between these two species leads me to believe that wherever one does happen to find inland ''O. humifusa'' colonies, ''J. virginiana'' will be found in close association.\u00a0 In fact, when conducting preliminary examinations of satellite imagery prior to an inland field exploration, I oftentimes rule out those potential habitat areas where I cannot see the tell-tale treetops of ''J. virginiana''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Growth Habits ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">There are basically two distinguishable growth habits observed in Connecticut's ''O. humifusa'': \"individual plants\" and \"clonal clusters\".</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Individual ''O. humifusa'' plants are those which exhibit a distinct basal center.\u00a0 While individual plants are almost always smaller than clonal clusters, they tend to grow taller.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Clonal clusters are large patches of ''O. humifusa'' which lack a distinct basal center and which are all linked into the same root system.\u00a0 These clusters primarily result from the process of layering, whereby cladodes of a parent ''O. humifusa'' plant which contact the ground are able to grow roots of their own, producing a genetically-identical extension of the parent plant.\u00a0 In this way, an individual plant may eventually expand to cover an area between 5 and 30 square feet (or more in some instances).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">These two growth habits are, for the most part, readily distinguishable in their most representative instances.\u00a0 However, in some cases, it can be difficult to distinguish whether or not a particular grouping of ''O. humifusa'' represents a clonal cluster or simply a series of individual plants growing close to each other.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Highly Variable Morphology ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">''Opuntia humifusa'' exhibits a particularly variable phenotype and, for this reason, it has been given several different scientific names across its rather broad range in the Eastern United States and Canada.\u00a0 Over the years, several botanists found specimens of ''O. humifusa'' which, in one way or another, differed in appearance so drastically from those with which they were familiar that it seemed quite obvious that the new find must represent a different species.\u00a0 Today, most of these erroneous species have been rejected and are understood to be synonymous with ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Characteristics that can potentially vary from colony to colony, or even between nearby plants in the same colony, include the height of the plants, the prevailing growing habit, the shape of the cladodes, the thickness of the cladodes, the presence of spines or glochids or the lack thereof, the color of spines and glochids and the color the flowers.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Because almost every outward trait of the cactus can vary so significantly in appearance, it is possible to find two plants living in close proximity which appear as if they are indeed entirely different species.\u00a0 Typically, though, plants from two different colonies on two different habitat types (especially a cactus from a coastal colony as compared to a cactus from an inland colony) will exhibit the greatest divergence in appearance from each other.\u00a0 It has been suggested that, due to the fragmented distribution of ''O. humifusa'' on isolated swaths of habitat, each disjunct colony may possess unique genetic traits that differ from those found elsewhere.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Response to Insufficient Sunlight Exposure ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">While ''O. humifusa'' is known to be especially shade-intolerant, colonies can survive under conditions where daily exposure to direct sunlight is somewhat reduced.\u00a0 In these situations, the cladodes (pads) of ''O. humifusa'' will tend to grow longer and narrower as a result of a process known as etiolation.\u00a0 Etiolation occurs whenever an ''O. humifusa'' plant receives fewer hours of direct exposure to sunlight than preferred.\u00a0 The elongation of the cactus pads is an attempt of the cactus to \"reach\" towards sunlight, similar to the way in which flower species germinating in the shade will grow long, arching stems in an attempt to reach the sunlight.<ref name=\"cambridge\">Nobel, Park S. Environmental Biology of Agaves and Cacti. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. 161. Print. <http://books.google.com/books?id=jdO2U84I6JwC&pg=PA161&dq=humifusa+cactus&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-ePET5mWJerDsQKy9ZzQCQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=humifusa%20cactus&f=false>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Etiolated-opuntia-humifusa-longbeachcomplex.JPG|thumb|left|Tightly surrounded by ''Rosa rugosa'' (Beach Rose), the ''Opuntia humifusa'' seen here at the Long Beach Complex in Stratford, CT has developed a growth habit indicative of etiolation, whereby it has grown especially long cladodes in an effort to gain improved sunlight exposure.]]Wherever etiolation is observed in ''O. humifusa'', the plant is not receiving an ideal amount of direct sunlight exposure.\u00a0 The [[#Ingham Hill Colony (Old Saybrook)|Ingham Hill Colony]] and [[#West Rock North Complex|West Rock North Complex]], for example, exhibit particularly long cladodes (shaped like an elongated ellipse) that are undoubtedly undergoing etiolation in an attempt reach toward sunny areas that aren't shaded out by larger trees.\u00a0 In contrast, the ''O. humifusa'' of the Long Beach Complex and Short Beach Colony generally have rather short cladodes which are occasionally almost circular in their profile, owing to the fact that they receive plenty of direct sunlight exposure and are not undergoing etiolation, at all.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although etiolation is a symptom of insufficient habitat conditions, it is not known how long ''O. humifusa'' can persist under etiolation conditions.\u00a0 It is possible, though not verified, that a colony may persist for decades under reduced light conditions and possess a nearly permanent etiolated growth habit.\u00a0 However, under reduced-light conditions, ''O. humifusa'' has been observed to cease flowering<ref name=\"ohio-study\"></ref>, a scenario in which the colony will not be able expand rapidly or disperse beyond its clonal cluster.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Gauging Severity of Etiolation ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Opuntia-unusual-cladodes-1.jpg|thumb|right|Despite receiving several hours of direct sunlight each day, this cactus of the Long Beach Complex in Stratford, CT exhibits peculiarly elongated cladodes.\u00a0 This unusual morphology is ''not'' caused by etoliation, but must represent some other genetic or environmental influence.]]Etiolation in ''O. humifusa'' results in cladodes that are much longer than they are wide.\u00a0 However, this length-to-width ratio cannot exclusively be used to judge the degree of etiolation of a given specimen.\u00a0 In certain cases, I have discovered specimens growing on warm, exposed sand dunes (receiving no less than 6-8 hours of unobstructed sunlight per day) which exhibit unusually long, skinny cladodes that cannot have occurred due to etiolation, but which must have resulted from some other combination of genetic and/or environmental factors.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Therefore, in determining if a given ''O. humifusa'' specimen with elongated cladodes is suffering from insufficient sunlight exposure, it is necessary to consider the conditions of its immediate habitat.\u00a0 Examples of instances in which I have discovered etiolated ''O. humifusa'' specimens are as follows:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Cacti growing within a thick patch of coastal ''Rosa rugosa'' (Beach Rose)'''.\u00a0 In this case, the cacti probably colonized the area before the arrival of ''R. rugosa'', which would have quickly overtaken the cacti.\u00a0 In response, the \"buried\" cacti were growing especially long, rigid cladodes in an effort to hoist themselves towards sunlight.\u00a0 These cacti, which still seemed surprisingly healthy, had already exceeded what is typically thought of as the maximum height of this usually prostrate species.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Cacti growing upon a tight, rocky glade within the forest.'''\u00a0 In the case of the Ingham Hill Colony in Old Saybrook, the ''O. humifusa'' are being gradually shaded out by encroaching canopy growth.\u00a0 These specimens all exhibit rather elongated cladodes, certainly indicative of etiolation due to the miniminal amount of sunlight exposure available.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In general, elongated cladode length on any given specimen should only be attributed to etiolation in those instances where the affected plant clearly cannot obtain 6 hours of relatively unobstructed sunlight per day.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Reproduction ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">''O. humifusa'' can reproduce both vegetatively and by seed.\u00a0 It can also grow by the process of layering, which is not technically reproduction even though it may appear otherwise.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Reproduction by seed begins when an ''O. humifusa'' flower, which grows from a cladode, is pollinated.\u00a0 The pollinated flower then develops into a fruit, typically referred to as a \"prickly pear\", which contains viable seeds.\u00a0 In some cases, these fruits naturally fall off of the parent plant and may germinate on their own.\u00a0 In other cases, the prickly pear fruit is eaten by birds or mammals which cannot digest the seeds.\u00a0 In this way, viable seeds are distributed in the predator's dung, potentially very far from the parent plant.\u00a0 At least one study of ''O. humifusa'' found that seeds which passed through the digestive tract of an animal had a higher rate of germination than those that did not.<ref name=\"us-forest-service\">Taylor, Jane. \"Species: Opuntia humifusa.\" ''U. S. Forest Service: Fire Effects Information System''. United States Forest Service, 2005. Web. 31 May 2012. <http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/cactus/opuhum/all.html>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Vegetative reproduction in ''O. humifusa'' occurs when a cladode (or a piece of a cladode) breaks free of a parent plant and takes root.\u00a0 In this way, the broken cladode produces a new plant which is genetically-identical to, but entirely independent of, the parent plant.\u00a0 ''O. humifusa'' reproduces rather effectively in this manner.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Clonal clusters of ''O. humifusa'' can be produced by a process known as layering, whereby cladodes of an individual plant droop to the ground and begin growing a satellite root system.\u00a0 Layering is an especially common phenomenon observed on rocky inland habitats in Connecticut and a single ''O. humifusa'' plant can grow to form a very large clonal mat that covers a dozen square feet or more.\u00a0 However, since layering occurs without the cladode breaking free of the parent plant, the extended root systems produced by layering are actually just extensions of the parent.\u00a0 Thus, layering is technically not a form of reproduction but a form of growth, whereby a single ''O. humifusa'' plant expands its size without actually reproducing.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On occasion, it may be difficult to distinguish a cluster of several, individual ''O. humifusa'' from a clonal cluster which actually represents a single individual.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Conservation Status ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">According to the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, ''Opuntia humifusa'' is listed as a species of \"Special Concern\" in Connecticut. <ref name=\"ct-special-concern\">\"Endangered, Threatened & Special Concern Plants.\" ''Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection''. Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, 1 Jul 2010. Web. 30 Apr 2012. <http://www.ct.gov/dep/cwp/view.asp?a=2702&q=323482>.</ref>\u00a0 This status is most likely due to the fact that ''O. humifusa'' has a naturally restricted range within the state.\u00a0 However, at least one study of ''O. humifusa'' has determined that natural succession, whereby previously open swaths of land are colonized by shrubs and shade trees, can result in a corresponding decline in population.<ref name=\"ohio-study\"></ref>\u00a0 I have observed this phenomenon first-hand in Old Saybrook, where the [[#Ingham Hill Colony (Old Saybrook)|Ingham Hill Colony]] is in danger of being shaded out as the surrounding deciduous forest grows older and taller.\u00a0 Since very large areas of territory may possess only a handful of ''O. humifusa'' colonies, especially in the case of inland habitats, it is entirely possible for forest re-growth to cause local extinction.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Definition of Terms ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">While certain terms referring to ''Opuntia humifusa'', such as '''cladode''' and '''glochid''', are well-defined and universally agreed-upon, it is necessary to implement some terms which are decidedly less strictly defined or even invented in the course of my own research.\u00a0 These terms include descriptions of the varying growth habits of the cactus, as well as the criteria for evaluating colony structures.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">An '''individual plant''' is defined as a specimen which strongly exhibits a distinct basal center.\u00a0 Typically, only one to two tightly grouped cladode \"stalks\" form the foundation of the plant.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A '''juvenile plant''' is defined as an individual plant which has less than 6 cladodes ''and'' does not yet appear to be able to produce flowers.\u00a0 In many cases, juvenile plants may possess only one cladode which may have grown from seed or from a cladode that broke free of a parent plant.\u00a0 Juvenile plants, however, can also possess a half-dozen small cladodes and be very close to a level of maturation where it may begin to flower.\u00a0 In either case, juvenile plants are always rather small and represent ''O. humifusa'' specimens which are undoubtedly young.\u00a0 Due to insufficient study of the species, as well as varying growth rates on different habitat, it is difficult to specify an approximate age range with juvenile plants.\u00a0 Therefore, status as a juvenile is strictly determined by cladode count and the apparent inability of the small specimen to produce flowers and fruits.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">'''Clonal clusters''' are defined as clumps or mats of ''O. humifusa'' which do not exhibit a distinct basal center.\u00a0 These mats can be highly variable in size, ranging from 2 square feet to nearly 40 square feet.\u00a0 From a technical standpoint, the distinction between an individual plant and a clonal cluster can be deceiving, since clonal clusters essentially represent individual plants which simply exhibit a clumpy or mat-like growth habit, thus occasionally becoming very large while still possessing a single, integrated root system.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A '''colony''' is defined as an instance in which ''O. humifusa'' can be found growing in a specific geographical location.\u00a0 Typically, a colony exists in a small enough area that a single set of coordinates can sufficiently pinpoint the location.\u00a0 Colonies can can range in size from a single, large clonal cluster (West Rock South Colony) to several dozen individuals and/or clonal clusters scattered generously throughout an acre of land.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A '''complex''' is defined as series of colonies which, despite being observably distinct, exist in very close proximity to each other.\u00a0 Each distinct colony included a given complex should exist no more than 500 feet from at least one other colony in that complex.\u00a0 Thus, a complex can encompass only a few acres and include only two colonies (West Rock North Complex) or may encompass well over 100 acres and include over a dozen colonies (Long Beach Complex).\u00a0 In certain instances, it is sufficient for two colonies to be grouped into the same complex if there is even little more than one or two individual plants that lie between them at some intermediate point.\u00a0 For example, if Colony A and Colony B are 800 feet from each other, but a lone individual plant can be found growing at some intermediate point in between, then both colonies are considered to be part of the same complex.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">I first considered defining something like a complex after discovering two distinct colonies on the northern end of West Rock Ridge in New Haven (formerly West Rock Dunbar Colony and West Rock Shepard Colony) which existed in such close proximity to each other that it might have been possible to mistake them for one continuous colony if one did not examine them at length.\u00a0 The concept became a necessity after I examined the area of Long Beach in Stratford and Bridgeport, where colonies could be found liberally distributed over the course of nearly a mile of peninsular beach and scrubland.\u00a0 In such a case, it would simply be impractical to attempt to affix a unique name to each colony found in such a densely populated area.\u00a0 In these instances, the introduction of the concept of the complex serves to simplify the naming process and identify an area where ''O. humifusa'' is more locally widespread than at an isolated colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Confirmed Colonies ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Through field exploration, I have confirmed the existence of ''O. humifusa'' colonies in the following locations.\u00a0 Where applicable, GPS tracklogs and photographs are supplied.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Metacomet Colony (Plainville) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Metacomet Colony is a relatively small colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' that can be found on traprock ridge in Plainville, Connecticut near Pinnacle Hill.\u00a0 The colony derives its name from its close proximity to the Metacomet Trail, which runs within ten feet of the cacti.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Background Information ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The general location of a colony of ''O. humifusa'' living in Connecticut was documented in an online article by Stephen Wood (creator of the website [http://www.ctmuseumquest.com Connecticut Museum Quest]) on October 6, 2007<ref name=\"ctmqpricklypear\">Wood, Stephen. \"Section 8: The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly.\" Connecticut Museum Quest. N.p., 6 Oct 2007. Web. 18 Apr. 2012. <http://www.ctmuseumquest.com/?page_id=1055>.</ref>.\u00a0 Wood reported finding these cacti along the Metacomet Trail in Plainville, Connecticut, however he did not supply a precise location.\u00a0 The article was accompanied by photographic evidence.\u00a0 Further research seems to suggest that this colony was known to at least a few individuals as early as 2005.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== April 15, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On April 15, 2012, I conducted a field exploration along a section of the Metacomet Trail in Plainville that followed the same route taken by Wood during his 2007 hike.\u00a0 Within approximately 1/4-mile of hiking, I discovered a sandy, sun-baked ledge adjacent to the trail upon which there were several ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 In all likelihood, this colony is the same one that Wood documented five years earlier, owing to the apparent health of these cacti.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">During that same field exploration, I carefully explored several other ledges (over the course of approximately 1.25 miles) which seemed to present a habitat similar to that of the ledge with the confirmed cactus colony.\u00a0 I was unable to document any further colonies of ''O. humifusa'' along the Metacomet Trail.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Status ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Prickly-pear-plainville.jpg|thumb|Member of the '''Metacomet Colony''', found on a ledge along the Metacomet Trail in Plainville, CT]]My field exploration has identified a single ledge along the Plainville-section of the Metacomet Trail upon which a colony of ''O. humifusa'' currently lives.\u00a0 This colony is known to have existed for at least five years and seemed, upon examination, to be relatively healthy.\u00a0 Although many ledges with a similar habitat can be found along nearby stretches of the Metacomet Trail, my explorations have led me to conclude that there are no further colonies in the area.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Concerns About Preservation ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The colony of ''O. humifusa'' identified along the Metacomet Trail is apparently healthy, but it is relatively small and confined to a single ledge that is easily accessible.\u00a0 Thus, the colony (and the very existence of ''O. humifusa'' in the area) is potentially subject to severe impact by natural or human disturbance such as wildfires, extreme weather conditions, incidental tree fall, foot traffic by hikers and unlawful specimen collection.\u00a0 Any one of these factors, or any combination of them, could weaken, deplete or destroy the cactus colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Colony Location and Statistics ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Metacomet Colony is located in Plainville, Connecticut at 41.672165\u00b0 , -72.831497\u00b0.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view this location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.672165,%20-72.831497 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To download the GPS tracklog of this exploration (KML\u00a0 format), [[Media:Metacomet-Trail-Pinnacle-Rock-Area-(Prickly-Pear-Cactus).kml|click here]].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~399 feet above sea level</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Basalt</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Habitat Type:''' Inland Cliffs/Mountain Peaks <ref name=\"habitat-types\">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Milford Point Colony (Milford) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Milford Point Colony is a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' living within the Smith-Hubbell Wildlife Refuge, an 8-acre parcel of preserve land adjacent to the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point.\u00a0 The colony derives its name from the Audubon sanctuary (which, in turn, derives its name from a common term for the peninsula in Milford, Connecticut).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Background ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On a website dedicated primarily to gardening with native plant species, an article about ''Opuntia humifusa'' briefly mentions that the cactus \"grows naturally in Connecticut along the coast. You can see it at the Milford Point Coastal Audubon Center along the boardwalk.\"<ref name=\"eklund\">Teresa. \"Prickly Pear Cactus.\" Eklund Native Species Garden. N.p., 26 May 2009. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://eklundgarden.blogspot.com/2009/05/prickly-pear-cactus.html>.</ref>\u00a0 Known formally as the Coastal Center at Milford Point, the preserve is owned and managed by the Connecticut Audubon Society and is comprised of an 8.4-acre protected barrier beach in Milford, Connecticut.<ref name=\"audubonmilfordpoint\">\"The Coastal Center at Milford Point.\" ''Connecticut Audubon Society''. Connecticut Audubon Society, n.d. Web. 23 Apr 2012. <http://www.ctaudubon.org/coastal-center-at-milford-point/>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== April 28, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On April 28, 2012, I conducted a field exploration of the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point during which I explored the relatively small nature preserve for ''Opuntia humifusa'' which, based upon my previous research, were likely to found along the beach boardwalk.\u00a0 This exploration involved a very short walk from the parking area to the boardwalk, as well as a brief off-trail survey of the area in which the cacti were discovered.\u00a0 In total, my route covered approximately 0.29 miles.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Congruent with the claims discovered during my research, ''O. humifusa'' were visible from the short boardwalk which traverses a series of dunes and terminates at the seashore.\u00a0 In many cases, these plants were only one to two feet from the boardwalk, unobstructed by any railings.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although the boardwalk offered access to a few cacti, it was clear that other cacti could be found deeper in the dunes which were obstructed from view by various trees and shrubs.\u00a0 In order to obtain a rough estimate of the total number of cacti on the property, I left the boardwalk and conducted a survey of all those portions of preserve which could reasonably be accessed by foot.\u00a0 In total, I was able count 19 individual ''O. humifusa'' spread out over an area of approximately 1/2 acre.\u00a0 Since my investigation of the dunes was not exhaustive, it is fair to say that my count is strictly a conservative estimate of the total cacti growing at Milford Point.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Status and Description </ins>====</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">My field exploration of the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point has revealed that ''Opuntia humifusa'' are a \"featured\" attraction at this preserve.\u00a0 The colony of cacti is not only exceptionally easy to find, but the boardwalk that traverses the dune area seems to have been constructed, in part, with the specific intention of exposing preserve visitors to wild cacti.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The colony of ''O. humifusa'' on Milford Point covers approximately 1/2-acre and includes at least 19 plants, however the actual number of plants is likely to be at least 10% higher than this estimate.\u00a0 Most of these cacti were \"individuals\", which is to say that there were very few which had formed large clonal clusters.\u00a0 </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">These findings stand in stark contrast to those of the colonies that I have discovered on inland ridges, which are generally isolated to a very small area (less than 50 square feet) and tend to be centered upon a clonal cluster, with \"individual\" plants accounting for less than half of the bio-mass of each colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The cacti colony at Milford Point was interspersed amongst dune shrubs, short coniferous trees and a variety of herbaceous plants.\u00a0 In some cases, ''O. humifusa'' were found growing around the bases of trees and shrubs, while in other instances they were growing upon clearings in the dune with a certain margin of open sand between other plant life.\u00a0 This, again, stands in stark contrast to inland mountain sites, upon which ''O. humifusa'' grows in areas with an exceptionally low diversity of trees and plants.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Concerns About Preservation ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Of all of the sites at which I have observed ''Opuntia humifusa'', the Coastal Center at Milford Point offers the easiest access to these plants while at the same time providing the greatest level of protection.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">While the cacti colonies in Plainville and New Haven are found upon state-owned property such as West Rock Ridge State Park and the Metacomet Trail, these parcels of land are very large and protective legislation is nearly impossible to routinely enforce.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point, while providing similar protective regulations, encompasses a very smaller parcel of land (less than 9 acres) upon which it is considerably more practical to conduct regular assessments of the colonies health.\u00a0 Thus, I am confident that the colony of ''O. humifusa'' at Milford are relatively safe under the protection and monitoring of Audubon Center staff.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Colony Location and Statistics ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Milford Point Colony is located in Milford, Connecticut at the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point.\u00a0 The coordinates of the colony within the Audubon Center are 41.175451\u00b0 , -73.100733\u00b0.\u00a0 </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view this location in Google Maps, </ins>[<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">http://maps.google.com/?q=41.175451,%20-73.100733 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To download the GPS tracklog of this exploration (KML\u00a0 format), [[Media:West-Rock-Ridge-State-Park-South-Prickly-Pear-Cactus.kml|click here]].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~14 feet above sea level</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Sand (composed primarily of quartz)</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Habitat Type:''' Coastal Sand Dunes <ref name=\"habitat-types\">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http</ins>://www.<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">iucnredlist</ins>.org/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== West Rock Colonies (New Haven & Hamden) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">There are three colonies of ''Opuntia humifusa'' found within the boundaries of West Rock Ridge State Park, which extends south to New Haven and north to Hamden.\u00a0 The West Rock South Colony is located in the southern half of the park within New Haven.\u00a0 The West Rock North Complex is comprised of two colonies which are located in the far-northern end of the state park.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Geographic & Historic Overview ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">West Rock Ridge is a prominent traprock ridge in Connecticut that runs in a north-south direction, extending roughly 5 miles from Hamden to northern New Haven and skirting the borders of Woodbridge and Bethany along its western edges.\u00a0 Although West Rock Ridge is now almost entirely contained within the 1,800-acre West Rock Ridge State Park, this was not always the case.\u00a0 West Rock Ridge, as a protected parcel of land, began in 1826 as a small 50-acre city park in New Haven (along the southern end of the ridge).\u00a0 By 1975, the State of Connecticut had established West Rock Ridge State Park on areas of the ridge which were not owned by New Haven.\u00a0 By 1982, New Haven's city park on West Rock Ridge had grown to encompass roughly 600 acres of land, all of which was donated to the state that year to be incorporated into West Rock Ridge State Park.\u00a0 Further parcels of land were added to the state park whenever they became available, swelling the park grounds to the roughly 1,800 acres that it encompasses today.<ref name=\"historywestrock\">\"History of the Park.\" ''West Rock Ridge Park Association''. West Rock Ridge Park Association, n.d. Web. 7 May 2012. <http:/</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">westrockpark.wordpress.com/history/>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Background Information ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although plenty of records exist which suggest the presence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' on West Rock Ridge, very few of these records offer any specific information as to where the cactus can actually be discovered.\u00a0 This was of particular concern because West Rock Ridge State Park is over 5 miles long, extending from New Haven in the south to Hamden in the north (and even straddling the borders of Woodbridge and Bethany on its western edges).\u00a0 Launching precisely targeted explorations of West Rock Ridge required the extensive study of satellite imagery, which permitted me to focus upon those areas which are not heavily forested and, thus, have at least some measure of potential to be ''O. humifusa'' habitat.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The oldest evidence that I've thus far discovered which attests to the existence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' in New Haven, Connecticut dates to the mid-1800s.\u00a0 [[A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts, Volume 2]], published in 1846, very briefly mentions that the ''O. humifusa'' \"is said to be found at New Haven, in Connecticut.\"<ref name=\"forestsmass\">Emerson, George Barrell. ''A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts''. 2. Boston: Dutton and Wenworth, State Printers, 1846. 424. Print. <http://books.google.com/books/reader?id=7c4VAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader>.</ref>\u00a0 No specific information is provided concerning the whereabouts of a colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In a modern written overview of West Rock Ridge in New Haven, Connecticut, the ''West Rock Ridge Park Association'' notes that the ridge offers an \"extraordinary biodiversity of plants and animals from prickly pear cactuses to 230 species of birds\".<ref name=\"aboutwestrock\">\"About West Rock.\" ''West Rock Ridge Park Association''. West Rock Ridge Park Association, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://westrockpark.wordpress.com/about/>.</ref>\u00a0 The text does not offer any further mention of ''O. humifusa'', nor does it offer photographic evidence.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Further supporting this claim, an article was published on the website of the [http</ins>:/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">/msa2012.net Mycological Society of America] which details a group hike throughout West Rock Ridge scheduled to take place in 2012 during the organization's annual meeting.\u00a0 Although the organisms of interest to mycologists are primarily mushrooms and other fungi, the article nonetheless states that hikers in the West Rock Ridge area \"occasionally [find] prickly pear cactus\".<ref name=\"myco2012\">\"Foray.\" ''Mycological Society of America 2012 Meeting''. Mycological Society of America, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http</ins>:<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">//msa2012.net/schedule/fieldtrips.php>.</ref>\u00a0 No further mention of cacti is made in this article.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The compelling evidence of the presence of ''O. humifusa'' on West Rock Ridge comes in the form of a photograph taken by Michael Hornak in 2011.\u00a0 The image portrays ''O. humifusa'' in bloom and the geo-tag data pinpoints the location of the plant to be at the far northern end of West Rock Ridge State Park in Hamden, Connecticut.<ref name=\"hornak-photo\">Hornak, Michael. ''Blooming on the Fourth''. 2011. Photograph. Flickr. Web. 1 May 2012. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/31522928@N08/5902419015/>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A preliminary examination of satellite imagery of West Rock Ridge revealed several areas along the southern end of the park where habitat suitable for ''O. humifusa'' potentially existed.\u00a0 Because the southern end of the ridge has a greater concentration of areas that aren't covered with thick forest, my earliest exploration focused on this region.\u00a0 Exploration of the northern end of the ridge was conducted later after the discovery of Hornak's ''O. humifusa'' photograph.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== April 28, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">I conducted a field exploration of the southern half of West Rock Ridge State Park on April 28, 2012, during which I carefully investigated all of the target areas in that region that were identified in my preliminary studies of satellite imagery.\u00a0 This entailed a hike of approximately 3.08 miles and the route variously included hiking on foot trails and along the park road.\u00a0 Extensive bush-whacking was required in order to explore all of the target locations, many of which were between 20 and 100 feet off of the road or established trails.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Target areas of exploration primarily included west-facing and south-facing ledges along the precipices of the southern half of West Rock Ridge.\u00a0 Most of these areas were devoid of trees or, at least, very sparsely forested.\u00a0 A thorough investigation of these target areas revealed no presence of ''Opuntia humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">However, I did succeed in locating a healthy colony of cacti in an area which was not within my original </ins>list <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">of target areas.\u00a0 The colony was located on a relatively small clearing within the forest towards the interior of the ridge.\u00a0 This clearing consisted of an isolated, slightly elevated dome of exposed bedrock which enjoyed full sunlight and supported a bare minimum of herbaceous plants.\u00a0 The colony included one large clonal cluster of cacti as well as a number of individual cacti along the outer perimeter of the clearing which were at various stages of maturation.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== May 5, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A second field exploration was conducted on May 5, 2012 and involved an investigation of approximately 1.09 miles on the far northern extent of West Rock Ridge in Hamden, Connecticut.\u00a0 This exploration revealed several areas, some quite large, where bedrock was exposed at the surface and there was a bare minimum of tree growth.\u00a0 However, most of these \"obvious\" areas yielded no findings.\u00a0 Eventually, I ventured to the steep, terraced precipices on the eastern side of the ridge and succeeded in discovering a large clonal colony of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 I quickly noticed that this uppermost cluster was only the tip of the iceberg, as further clonal clusters could be seen growing on several lower ledges descending the face of the ridge.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">After thoroughly documenting this colony, I began moving northwards and checking similar habitat for the presence of another colony.\u00a0 I succeeded in discovering another colony approximately 200 feet further north of the first.\u00a0 This colony shared a similar character with the nearby find, where a several clonal clusters could be found on successively lower-elevation ledges.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Status and Description ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== West Rock South Colony =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:West-rock-south-colony-opuntia.jpg|thumb|'''West Rock South Colony''', found on the southern half of West Rock Ridge in New Haven, CT]]My first field exploration identified a small, isolated, exposed patch of bedrock within the forest on the southern half of West Rock Ridge in New Haven, Connecticut upon which a colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' currently lives.\u00a0 I have not found any explicit evidence that the location of this colony has been previously documented.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The colony, which I have named '''West Rock South Colony''', consists of a large, clonal patch covering approximately 25 to 35 square feet.\u00a0 Within 5 to 10 feet of this clonal center were approximately 6 or 7 individual outlying \"satellite\" cacti.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">There is a bare minimum of herbaceous plants on the cacti habitat, as would be expected.\u00a0 The most prominent additive feature of this colony is a large, gnarled, many-trunked juniper, specifically an Eastern Red Cedar (''Juniperus virginiana'' var. ''virginiana'').\u00a0 The large clonal mass of cacti can be found tightly skirting the base of this tree.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== West Rock North Complex =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">My second field exploration identified two very large colonies of ''Opuntia humifusa'' on the east-facing cliffs at the far northern end of West Rock Ridge in Hamden, Connecticut.\u00a0 These colonies are situated barely 200 feet from each other and are rather significant inland colonies in Connecticut, primarily for their striking demonstration of circumstances in which ''O. humifusa'' can effectively expand its range via barochory (gravity) as opposed to zoochory (animal-assisted seed dispersal).\u00a0 Although these two colonies were originally given separate names ('''West Rock Shepard Colony''' and '''West Rock Dunbar Colony'''), they were later collectively renamed the '''West Rock North Complex''' after changes to my naming conventions enacted in July 2012.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:West-rock-dunbar-colony-opuntia.jpg|thumb|left|'''West Rock North Complex''', found on the northern end of West Rock Ridge in Hamden, CT]</ins>]<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Both of these colonies exhibit a structure which is supremely demonstrative of a scenario in which ''O. humifusa'' can successfully colonize surrounding habitat.\u00a0 The uppermost clonal clusters of each colony are found at an elevation of roughly 500 feet.\u00a0 Interestingly, numerous further clonal clusters can be found immediately below on successive terraced ledges that extend as far as 50 to 100 feet down the face of the ridge.\u00a0 My observations suggest that the clonal clusters at the highest elevations are most likely the oldest, progenitor clusters and that, as cladodes and fruits broke free of these older plants, they would tumble down the face of the ridge.\u00a0 Whenever these disconnected cladodes or fruits came to rest on a lower ledge, they would take root or germinate and produce a new clonal cluster.\u00a0 Over a number of years then, these colonies became quite large and can be described as \"cascading\" down the face of the ridge.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">I counted at least a dozen clonal clusters and as many as two dozen individual cacti in the southernmost of the two colonies.\u00a0 The northernmost has fewer individual plants but its clonal clusters, of which I counted roughly ten, tended to be larger.\u00a0 But the most impressive characteristic of this complex is the role which gravity has played in expanding the size of the colonies over time.\u00a0 Both of these colonies probably began as a single, high-elevation clonal cluster on the uppermost ledges of West Rock Ridge.\u00a0 With the help of gravity to carry broken cladodes and fruits to lower-elevation ridges, a process known as barochory, those two original colonies each expanded their mass by at least 1000%.\u00a0 Indeed, the West Rock North Complex offers a rare demonstration of just how remarkably effective ''O. humifusa'' can be in expanding its local range without the assistance of animals as intermediaries, at least so long as the terrain is such that gravity can be harnessed to widely distribute fruits and broken cladodes.\u00a0 No where else in Connecticut have I discovered a colony which clearly demonstrates the enormous potential of ''O. humifusa'' to harness barochory.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The West Rock North Complex was found in close association with Eastern Red Cedar (''Juniperus virginiana'' var. ''virginiana'') just as the considerably smaller West Rock South Colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Concerns About Preservation ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The West Rock South Colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' (identified on the southern half of West Rock Ridge) is apparently healthy but, as is typical of inland colonies, it is relatively small and confined to a single rocky outcrop.\u00a0 Despite the fact that this colony is only about 60 feet off of the southern park road, it is unlikely that this colony is at risk of easy discovery.\u00a0 There aren't any parking areas within close range to the colony, meaning that park traffic is not likely stop in the immediate vicinity.\u00a0 In addition, there are no trails that lead to the rocky clearing, so hikers aren't likely to happen the colony.\u00a0 Thus, there is a bare minimum of concern about the preservation of the ''O. humifusa'' colony at this site and a high probability that it will persist well into the future.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The colonies of the West Rock North Complex (identified on the northern end of West Rock Ridge) are exceptionally healthy and quite large.\u00a0 Although hiking trails run within 40 or 50 feet of the clonal clusters at the highest elevations, the cacti would be difficult to spot unless one were expressly looking for them.\u00a0 Furthermore, the \"cascading\" quality of these colonies means that, even if harm were to come to the more accessible high-elevation clonal clusters, those clusters on the lower ledges would still flourish by virtue of their relative inaccessibility.\u00a0 There is little concern about the preservation of this ''O. humifusa'' complex.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Colony Locations and Statistics ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== West Rock South Colony =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The West Rock South Colony is located in New Haven, Connecticut at West Rock Ridge State Park.\u00a0 The coordinates of the colony within the park are 41.335736\u00b0 , -72.964300\u00b0.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view this location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.335736,%20-72.964300 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To download the GPS tracklog of this exploration (KML\u00a0 format), [</ins>[<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Media:West-Rock-Ridge-State-Park-South-Prickly-Pear-Cactus.kml|click here]].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~429 feet above sea level</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Unknown (likely Basalt)</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Habitat Type:''' Inland Cliffs/Mountain Peaks <ref name=\"habitat-types\">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http</ins>://www.<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">iucnredlist</ins>.org/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== West Rock North Complex =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The West Rock North Complex, comprised of two distinct colonies, is located in Hamden, Connecticut at West Rock Ridge State Park.\u00a0 The coordinates of the southernmost colony are 41.398765\u00b0 , -72.945621\u00b0, while the coordinates of the northernmost colony are 41.398970\u00b0, -72.944514\u00b0.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view the location of the southernmost colony in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.398765,%20-72.945621 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view the location of the northernmost colony in\u00a0 Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.398970,%20-72.944514 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Pertinent statistics concerning the location of the complex include:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' Ranges from ~508 feet to ~430 feet above sea level</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Basalt</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Habitat Type:''' Inland Cliffs/Mountain Peaks <ref name=\"habitat-types\">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Short Beach Colony (Stratford) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Short Beach Colony is a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' spread generously throughout about one to two acres of flat, sandy scrubland fronting Long Island Sound at Short Beach Park in Stratford, Connecticut.\u00a0 The colony is named after the beach park in which it was found.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Background ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Unlike all of my other finds (as of May 2012), I had no prior research indicating the existence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' within Stratford's Short Beach Park.\u00a0 While my research did reveal that ''O. humifusa'' was known to live in Stratford, Short Beach Park was not among the known locations that I was able to dig up.\u00a0 Thus, when I decided to investigate this area, it was purely on a whim.\u00a0 I simply knew that ''O. humifusa'' was documented as living nearby (within only a mile or so along similar beachfront land), so I thought that I might investigate.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== May 9, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On May 9, 2012, I conducted a field exploration of Short Beach Park in which I focused exclusively upon a swath of sandy scrubland found within.\u00a0 This exploration involved roughly 1/2-mile of walking in total, during which I attempted investigate all of the potential habitat areas in the immediate vicinity.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although I uncovered no material in my research which suggested the presence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' at Short Beach Park, I was surprised to discover the first specimen within only a minute or two of searching.\u00a0 Subsequently, I discovered numerous other specimens spread out over roughly an acre.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">These cacti are actually rather easy to find, which may seem odd considering that no literature, articles or photographs of them can be found online.\u00a0 There are probably three factors which contribute to this lack of publicity.\u00a0 First, Short Beach Park is generally open only to residents of Stratford, meaning that the park doesn't get nearly as many visitors as if it were open to surrounding towns.\u00a0 Second, those Stratford residents that do visit the park probably tend to be interested primarily in visiting the sand beaches, not the scrubland behind them.\u00a0 Finally, one of the most common herbaceous plants that I found in association with this colony was ''Toxicodendron radicans'' (Poison Ivy), a highly-allergenic plant which is readily identifiable and generally avoided at all costs by humans.\u00a0 Some combination of these three factors is responsible for the relative \"secrecy\" of this colony despite the fact that it is easily accessible and found in extremely close proximity to heavily-visited beachfront.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Nonetheless, there is a trail matrix weaving throughout the scrubland which I doubt is of natural origin, so there must be some measure of human tending/landscaping to the area, as well as at least some regular foot traffic.\u00a0 Thus, this colony is probably well-known locally, but simply hasn't been publicized for one reason or another.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Status and Description ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Short-beach-colony-opuntia.jpg|thumb|One of many individual cacti in the '''Short Beach Colony''', found at Short Beach Park in Stratford, CT]]My field exploration of Stratford's Short Beach Park has revealed a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' growing on dry, sandy scrubland behind the sand beach.\u00a0 Despite being little-known throughout the state, this colony is probably rather well-known to those Stratford residents that frequent the park since it is easily accessed from high-traffic beach areas.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Short Beach Colony contains specimens that are spread throughout an acre (or more) of land, with most specimens being at least 15 to 20 feet apart.\u00a0 I counted a total of 14 ''O. humifusa'' specimens: four (4) large specimens, five (5) small specimens and five (5) specimens of intermediate size.\u00a0 Although there is always some measure of inaccuracy with these counts, owing to the clonal growth habits of ''O. humifusa'', this count is rather thorough.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Interestingly, there did not seem to be any significant clonal clusters at all, a finding which is congruent with the Milford Point Colony and which contrasts sharply with colony structures found on inland ridges.\u00a0 Although I did count four \"large\" ''O. humifusa'' specimens at Short Beach, these were relatively tall plants which, unlike clonal colonies that I've observed, still maintained a tight, individual structure with a discernible basal center.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The habitat area at Short Beach is exceptionally similar to the habitat area at Milford Point.\u00a0 At both of these habitat areas, the ''O. humifusa'' specimens are interspersed amongst dune shrubs and low-growing herbaceous plants along with a few coniferous trees, though the Short Beach habitat exhibited a lower density of coniferous trees and higher density of shrubs than the Milford Point habitat.\u00a0 Also congruent with Milford Point, ''O. humifusa'' did not seem to have a preference for any particular margin from larger shrubs; some specimens were found growing right at the base of shrubs, while others were found in more open, exposed areas amongst sparse, low-growing herbaceous plants.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Short Beach Colony exhibited a similarly high diversity of associated plant life as the Milford Point Colony.\u00a0 At least one of those herbaceous associates was ''Toxicodendron radicans'' (Poison Ivy), which was exceptionally prevalent.\u00a0 However, because ''T. radicans'' can be found in a wide range of habitats where there are no cacti, it cannot yet be considered anything more than an incidental associate (that is, I do not yet consider ''T. radicans'' to be a useful indicator species).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Possibility of Human Introduction ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Research into the history of Short Beach Park reveals that, as late as the early 1970s, there were numerous cottages there and the northeastern section of the park was being used as a town dump of sorts.<ref name=\"lordship-history\">\"Short Beach and Half Moon Cove 1946 to Present.\" ''The History of Lordship''. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 May 2012. <http://www.lordshiphistory.com/ShortBeach2webpage.html>.</ref>\u00a0 The last of the cottages were demolished in 1972 after the town emerged as the victor of a 15-year debate over whether the cottagers or the town held ownership over the land.\u00a0 At some point afterwards, between 1972 and 1973, Short Beach was developed as a town park.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Given these findings, there is some measure of question as to whether or not the ''O. humifusa'' that can be seen today at Short Beach were introduced by the park designers.\u00a0 On one hand, these cacti are on ideal habitat and would seem to be natural in origin.\u00a0 On the other hand, it is entirely possible that this habitat area did not exist prior to park development.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">At this point, I do not possess enough information to make any conclusions in this regard.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Concerns About Preservation ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although the Short Beach Colony is easily accessible and in close proximity to areas that likely receive a good deal of foot traffic, I have minimal concerns about preservation.\u00a0 The plants are relatively inconspicuous unless you are looking for them and they seem to have fared very well thus far.\u00a0 I cannot think of any reason why this would change in the foreseeable future.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Colony Location and Statistics ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Short Beach Colony is located in Stratford, Connecticut at Short Beach Park.\u00a0 The colony is spread out over a large area (approximately one acre), so it is not possible to provide pinpoint coordinates that are sufficiently representative.\u00a0 Suffice to say, the westernmost ''O. humifusa'' specimen is located at\u00a0 41.1638\u00b0 , -73.1093\u00b0, while the easternmost specimen is located at 41.1648\u00b0, -73.1090\u00b0.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view the westernmost location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.1638,%20-73.1093 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>No GPS track log was recorded for this exploration.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Pertinent statistics concerning the colony location include:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~5 feet above sea level</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Sand (composed primarily of quartz)</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Habitat Type:''' Coastal Sand Dunes <ref name=\"habitat-types\">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Ingham Hill Colony (Old Saybrook) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A single colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' can be found on a rocky forest glade beside a powerline cut in northern Old Saybrook, Connecticut.\u00a0 There is no formal parking area for the powerline cut, but it can be accessed on foot through a row of trees on the western side of Essex Road (Rt 153) in Westbrook, Connecticut.\u00a0 To be clear, the ''O. humifusa'' colony is not on the powerline cut.\u00a0 Rather, it is roughly 200 feet south of the powerline cut in the nearby forest.\u00a0 The colony is named after a series of three, non-connected roads in the vicinity of the colony which are all peculiarly named Ingham Hill Road.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Background Information ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Preserve-map-rt153-area.jpg|thumb|Detailed map of proposed development area showing location of ''O. humifusa'' colony]]The first document I discovered attesting to the existence of an ''Opuntia humifusa'' in Old Saybrook came in the form of a newspaper article published in the ''Shoreline Times'' on December 28, 2010.\u00a0 The article discussed an on-going controversy over the development of a golf course and residential homes within a coastal forest of nearly 1,000 acres (the only unbroken forest of that size left along Connecticut's coast), describing a recent walkthrough of the proposed areas of development.\u00a0 During the walkthrough, a \"large patch of prickly pear cactus, indigenous to the area and listed as a plant of </ins>Special <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Concern...was found on the Westbrook site\".<ref name=\"shorelinetimes\">Gamble, Ann. \"Another go-round for Preserve.\" ''Shoreline Times'' n.d., n. pag. Web. 27 May. 2012. <http://www.shorelinetimes.com/articles/2010/12/28/news/doc4d1a676bbefcd804749323.txt?viewmode=fullstory>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Because the ''Shoreline Times'' article did not provide very specific location information, more research was in order.\u00a0 Initially, I was only able to turn up the minutes of an Old Saybrook Planning Commission meeting (January 5, 2011) which, despite referencing the presence of ''O. humifusa'' somewhere in the planned development area, still failed to provide specific location information.<ref name=\"os-minutes\">Town of Old Saybrook. Old Saybrook Planning Commission. ''Planning Commission Minutes 1/5/2011''. Old Saybrook: 2011. Web. <http://oldsaybrookct.virtualtownhall.net/pages/oldsaybrookct_pc/OldSaybrookCT_PCMinutes/2011/S02E0A808>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Research for this site continued sporadically over the course of three weeks, with other documents surfacing that made mention of ''O. humifusa'' without citing a specific location.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Finally, I discovered the website of the Alliance for Sound Area Planning (ASAP), an organization dedicated to the protection of the aforementioned 1,000-acre forest.\u00a0 As part of its mission to educate concerned citizens about the development project, ASAP offers a full compilation of all of the documentation related to the proposed development in Old Saybrook.\u00a0 Within the site plans for the development, the location of the ''O. humifusa'' colony is marked for the purpose of ensuring that the species is responsibly addressed during the proposed construction.<ref name=\"asap-ct-docs\">\"Documents Relating To The Preserve\". ''Alliance for Sound Area Planning''. Alliance for Sound Area Planning, n.d. Web. 28 May 2012. <http://asap-ct.org/documents-relating-to-the-preserve/>.</ref>\u00a0 According to the map, the colony could be found about 0.5 miles west of Essex Road (Rt 153) within approximately 200 to 300 feet from a powerline cut in the forest.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although the ASAP-hosted map of the Old Saybrook development area does pinpoint the location of ''O. humifusa'', the map itself is somewhat difficult to interpret due to the inclusion of planned roads that do not currently exist.\u00a0 Thus, an examination of satellite imagery was conducted to identify all of the rocky glades in the vicinity which could potentially serve as ''O. humifusa'' habitat.\u00a0 I found approximately five (5) glades that were worth exploring.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== May 27, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On May 27, 2012, I conducted a field exploration (~1.5-mile loop hike) of rocky forest in northern Old Saybrook.\u00a0 The forest was accessed on foot from Essex Road (Route 153) in Westbrook, Connecticut via a powerline cut.\u00a0 This exploration focused upon five (5) rocky glades within the forest, each within close range of the mapped colony of ''O. humifusa'' identified on proposed development plans for the area.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">I succeeded in finding a colony of ''O. humifusa'' upon one of the five rocky glades previously identified.\u00a0 Surprisingly, other rocky glades which I had identified, and which offered similar habitat, yielded no further evidence of the presence of ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Status and Description ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[File:Ingham-hill-colony-o-humifusa.jpg|thumb|'''Ingham Hill Colony''', found on a sunny forest glade in the northern section of Old Saybrook, CT]]My field exploration in Old Saybrook revealed a single colony of ''O. humifusa'' living upon a rocky bald within a thick forest.\u00a0 Named the '''Ingham Hill Colony''', it is comprised of what appears to be a single, large clonal cluster of approximately 20 to 30 square feet.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Associated herbaceous vegetation was restricted to sparse grasses and perhaps other inconspicuous low-growing plants.\u00a0 As with all inland ''O. humifusa'' colonies discovered (as of May 28, 2012), ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar) was a close associate.\u00a0 The colony was essentially growing upon a rocky bald surrounded by a ring of ''J. virginiana''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In quite a few ways, the Ingham Hill Colony is of special importance to further understanding Connecticut's fragmented population of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 The colony can be found growing at an elevation of approximately 140 to 150 feet AMSL.\u00a0 Previously, every colony I had documented was found either on coastal scrubland at an elevation between 5 and 15 feet AMSL, or upon rocky ridges at an elevation of between 330 and 550 feet AMSL.\u00a0 To date, the Ingham Hill Colony is the only colony I have observed at this intermediary elevation.\u00a0 This proves that my earlier deduction, that inland ''O. humifusa'' favors elevations from 350 to 550 feet AMSL, is not necessarily true.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In addition, the composition of the soil upon which the Ingham Hill Colony is growing is also quite exceptional in juxtaposition to all other previously-documented inland colonies of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 According to the Soil Survey of the Connecticut, the Ingham Hill Colony is growing upon '''Charlton-Chatfield Complex''' (Soil Type 73) which is sub-classified as \"15 to 45 percent slopes, very rocky\" (Soil Type 73E).\u00a0 This soil type, which is derived variously from granite, schist and gneiss, is a notable diversion from the Holyoke soils (Soil Type 78) upon which all other inland colonies of ''O. humifusa'' have been discovered, indicating that the cactus is not likely to have any particular affinity for soil derived from basalt, diabase and gabbro, as previously believed.\u00a0 However, this soil type does coincide with other habitat requirements of ''O. humifusa'', being well-drained and \"very strongly acid to moderately acid\".</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Concerns About Preservation ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On one hand, the Ingham Hill Colony is guaranteed protection from potentially invasive development because its presence has been thoroughly documented during site surveys for a proposed golf course.\u00a0 This means that if any future development plans should come to pass, the Ingham Hill Colony will be responsibly handled and appropriated protected.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Unfortunately, the more serious problem faced by the ''O. humifusa'' of the Ingham Hill Colony is that of forest succession.\u00a0 Tall deciduous trees tightly crowd the perimeter of the rocky outcrop upon which the colony is growing.\u00a0 Assuming that these trees will continue to grow taller and fuller, extending branches into the gap in the canopy, they will inevitably shade out the ''O. humifusa'', first rendering them incapable of flowering and eventually robbing them of sunlight altogether.\u00a0 This chain of events, should it occur, will serve to eliminate the Ingham Hill Colony in perhaps as little as 10 years.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Judging by the plentitude of stone walls on the forest floor, it is safe to say that the entire area of the modern forest was in use as pasture land until at least the late 1800s.\u00a0 The colony of ''O. humifusa'' likely appeared within a decade or two after the pasture was abandoned.\u00a0 At that time, the only trees in the immediate vicinity of the colony would have been the coniferous ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar), known to be a hardy pioneer species.\u00a0 Because ''J. virginiana'' is relatively low-growing on rocky soils, these trees would have posed no serious threat to the sunlight requirements of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 Aerial photography from 1934 shows that the area of the modern-day forest was, at that time, still a patchy scrubland which would've been quite conducive to ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 The vegetation of this scrubland habitat would've continued to thicken after the 1930s, though.\u00a0 In time, probably between the late 1940s and early 1960s, taller deciduous trees began to dominate the land.\u00a0 Currently, even the ring of ''J. virginiana'' surrounding the colony is being shaded out by the deciduous canopy which is nearly twice as tall and growing more dense each year.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Based upon my examination of many ''O. humifusa'' colonies in the state, and considering the decidedly shade-intolerant habit of ''O. humifusa'', it is my belief that the Ingham Hill Colony is doomed to be shaded-out within the coming decade.\u00a0 To the best of my knowledge, the loss of the Ingham Hill Colony would represent the extirpation of ''O. humifusa'' in Old Saybrook.\u00a0 However, the plight of the Ingham Hill Colony also provides crucial insight into the severe decline of ''O. humifusa'' throughout the state since the early 1900s.\u00a0 In all likelihood, extinct colonies that were once known to live inland in towns such as Scotland and Burlington probably suffered the same fate as what seems to lie ahead of the Ingham Hill Colony.\u00a0 That is, those colonies initially grew upon old, rocky fields and pastures which initially provided excellent habitat for ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 In time, as succession took place turning pasture into meadow and meadow into forest, the ''O. humifusa'' would inevitably have been shaded-out and disappeared from the landscape altogether.\u00a0 For instance, tt is possible that the ''O. humifusa'' of the Ingham Hill Colony are the last remaining descendants from a colony which was once much larger and more wide-spread throughout the vicinity in past decades.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Colony Locations and Statistics ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Ingham Hill Colony is located in the northwestern section of Old Saybrook, Connecticut.\u00a0 The coordinates of the colony within the forest are 41.3072\u00b0 , -72.4165\u00b0.\u00a0 </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view this location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.3072,%20-72.4165 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Elevation of Colony</ins>:<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">''' ~145 feet above sea level</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Soil Type:''' Charlton-Chatfield Complex, 15 to 45 degree slopes, very rocky (Soil Type 73E)<</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Bedrock Geology</ins>:<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">''' Monson Gneiss (Omo)</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Westwoods Colony (Guilford) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Initial attempts at locating this colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' proved both frustrating and futile, with roughly 3 miles of hiking throughout the terrain revealing no presence of the plant despite plenty of seemingly excellent habitat.\u00a0 However, armed with the foreknowledge that a colony was found there as late as 2010, I conducted a second exploration of Westwoods nearly two months later and was successful in documenting the largest inland colony of ''O. humifusa'' in the state.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Background Information ==== </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In a blog article on [http://hikethegiant.blogspot.com| A Walk Across the Giant</ins>]<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">, the author related a story of his hike throughout West Woods in Guilford, Connecticut, noting that his hiking party came upon a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' on a ledge beside power lines<ref name=\"westwoods\">Colleran, Jim. \"Westwood Trails, Guilford.\" A Walk Across the Giant: Day Hikes Around Connecticut. N.p., 26 Sep 2010. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://hikethegiant.blogspot.com/2010/09/westwood-trails-guilford.html>.</ref>.\u00a0 This article was published in September 2010 and includes photographic evidence of the find.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Preliminary Assessment ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Initial examination of satellite imagery of Westwoods revealed no shortage of rocky terrain with minimal growth of shade trees.\u00a0 Many of these rocky balds, however, were clearly within a powerline cut that slices through the northern half of the woodlands.\u00a0 Because these power lines are most likely relatively recent in origin, it was unlikely that the cactus colony would be found there.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">However, the rocky terrain revealed by the powerline cut was also evident in occasional patches of exposed, rocky outcrops that can be seen within the forest using satellite imagery.\u00a0 These areas offered the ideal habitat for ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On April 28, 2012, I conducted an extensive investigation of a good deal of the potential cactus habitat in the eastern end of Westwoods.\u00a0 Over the course of a 3.1-mile exploration, I came upon numerous locations which seemed to present very promising habitat.\u00a0 Surprisingly, however, I was unable to locate any trace of ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On June 27, 2012, I conducted a second exploration of Westwoods, this time focusing only upon those rocky balds that I had not previously explored two months earlier.\u00a0 This time I was successful in locating a sizable cactus colony, which was to be found upon a long, narrow rocky bald just north of the powerline cut.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Status ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">My second field exploration at Westwoods revealed a very large colony of ''O. humifusa'' living upon a long, narrow rocky bald that sits atop an otherwise forested hill.\u00a0 I have named these cacti the '''Westwoods Colony''' in acknowledgement of fine efforts of preservation and trailblazing that have produced the Westwoods Trails.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[</ins>[<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">File</ins>:<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Opuntia-westwoods.jpg|thumb|In late June, Guilford's '''Westwoods Colony''' can be seen in full bloom with large, yellow flowers.]]</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Westwoods Colony habitat is a long, narrow, exposed bald of solid rock, running on a roughly east-west axis, on top of a hill in the northern portion of Westwoods.\u00a0 The colony itself is rather linear in its distribution, forming a thick, patchy row of plants that spans roughly 320 feet along the outcrop.\u00a0 Walking the entire area, I was able to count roughly 25 distinct or semi-distinct clonal clusters ranging from small clusters of only a few square feet to larger clusters upwards of 20 square feet.\u00a0 In addition, countless individual \"satellite\" plants could found scattered around the clonal clusters, some even growing with little more than 1</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">4\" of dried lichen as substrate.\u00a0 The bio-mass of cacti in this colony is impressive, to say the least, especially considering that the rocky outcrop is nearly devoid of trees such that one that can fully survey the extent of these plants from a single vantage point at the highest elevation of the ledge.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The exposed ledge was tightly bordered by dense broadleaf forest, but the ledge itself was rather bare.\u00a0 The only associated tree life living directly upon the cacti habitat consisted of three or four ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar).\u00a0 The presence of these trees further cements ''J. virginiana'' as the most significant indicator species of inland ''O. humifusa'', being found at every inland colony</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">complex location thus far documented.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Perhaps the most unique characteristic of the Westwoods Colony is the degree to which it has claimed such a large portion of habitat on the rocky ledge where it is found.\u00a0 Most inland colonies of ''O. humifusa'' are subject to very restrictive swaths of habitat, such as a tiny forest glade or a small rocky outcrop, where the plant has limited opportunities for expanding its claim.\u00a0 Westwoods Colony, on the other hand, is situated upon a rather large rocky bald and it is interesting to observe that ''O. humifusa'' has taken advantage of nearly every square foot of suitable terrain available.\u00a0 This aggressive expansion demonstrates just how effectively an ''O. humifusa'' colony can expand provided that has ample space on conducive habitat.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Also of note is the elevation at which the Westwoods Colony can be found.\u00a0 The Westwoods Colony is one of the few colonies that can be found at an intermediate elevation, significantly higher than coastal colonies and significantly lower than colonies growing upon ridge tops further inland.\u00a0 The Ingham Hill Colony in Old Saybrook, the first colony to be discovered at such a mid-level elevation and the only other of this type besides the Westwoods Colony, possesses a similar elevation in the range of ~140 feet AMSL.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The composition of the soil upon which the Westwoods Colony is growing is congruent with most inland colonies, being primarily a rocky outcrop of basalt and other typical associated minerals</ins>. <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"> According to the Soil Survey of the Connecticut, the Westwoods Colony is growing upon '''Rock Outcrop-Holyoke Complex''' (Soil Type 79) which is sub-classified as \"3 to 45 percent slopes\" (Soil Type 79E).\u00a0 This soil type is listed as primarily consisting of bare, surficial rock outcrops (which is consistent with my observations), with soils derived from Holyoke basalt providing the bulk of the loose substrate.\u00a0 The colony area is tightly framed by areas designated as Soil Type 78C to the east and Soil Type 78E to the west, both of which are essentially identical to Soil Type 79E with the exception that Holyoke-derived soils dominate over bare rocky outcrops.\u00a0 Directly to the the southwest of the colony area, within the corridor of the powerline cut, the soil type is designated as '''Wilbraham and Menlo Soils, Extremely Stony''' (Soil Type 6).\u00a0 This soil type, too, is primarily derived from basalt, but also shale and sandstone.\u00a0 The exceptionally poor drainage offered by this substrate is probably why the land was chosen for use as a powerline cut, being essentially useless for any other type of development.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Colony Location and Statistics ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Westwoods Colony is located in the northwestern section of the Westwoods Trails in Guilford, Connecticut.\u00a0 The long, linear colony begins at 41.286718\u00b0, -72.716262\u00b0 at the eastern end of the ledge and spanning west-northwest for approximately 320 feet to 41.287186\u00b0, -72.717182\u00b0.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To view this location (eastern end as mentioned above) in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.286718,%20-72.716262 click here].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' Ranges from ~125 to ~145 feet above sea level</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Soil Type:''' Rock Outcrop-Holyoke Complex, 3 to 45 percent slopes (Soil Type 79E)</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Pleasure Beach Park ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Legend.<ref name=\"pleasebeachlegend\">\"The Legend of Pleasure Beach.\" ''Bridgeport Library''. Bridgeport Public Library, 9 Feb 2011. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://bportlibrary</ins>.org/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">hc</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">entertainment</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">the-legend-of-pleasure</ins>-<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">beach/></ins>.<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Bridgeport, CT</ins>.<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ref name=\"pleasurebeachplan\">''Feasibility Study and Master Plan for Pleasure Beach Park''. City of Bridgeport, 2011. 37. Web. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/63235611/Pleasure-Beach-Planning-Bridgeport-CT-Community-Meeting-05-09-2011>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Birdnote.<ref name=\"pbnote\">\"Patrick Comins & the Important Bird Area at Long Beach West in Connecticut.\" ''BirdNote''. BirdNote, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://www.birdnote</ins>.org/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">birdnote.cfm?id=1845>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Unconfirmed Colonies ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The following locations are places which, based upon my research, most likely support a colony of ''Opuntia humifusa''.\u00a0 In most cases, I have found relatively modern textual references and/or photographs (that is, resources which are less than 10 years old) that attest to the existence of ''O. humifusa'' in these locations.\u00a0 Only by an extreme disturbance to the plants or the habitat could these colonies possibly have vanished in the short amount of time that passed since they were last documented.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Most of these colonies are as yet undocumented because access to them is difficult.\u00a0 Some are to be found growing upon islands and are only accessible by boat.\u00a0 Others are found growing along the seashore on the mainland, but are difficult to investigate due to the fact that they are clearly on private land.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The goal of this study involves photo-documenting each one of these colonies.\u00a0 Thus, in time, every location listed here will ideally be migrated to the [[#Confirmed Colonies|Confirmed Colonies]</ins>] <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">section once I've had an opportunity to document them.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Outer Island Colony (Branford) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">An issue of Connecticut Wildlife magazine published in 2003 notes that Outer Island, the island furthest south in the chain of thimble islands off the coast of Branford, \"is a home for the state-endangered prickly pear cactus\".<ref name=\"ctwoodlands\">''Connecticut Wildlife''. Jan/Feb 2003: 12. Print. <http://www.ct.gov/dep/lib/dep/wildlife/pdf_files/outreach/connecticut_wildlife_magazine/cwjf03.pdf>.</ref>\u00a0 Notably, Outer Island is also part and parcel to the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although Outer Island is generally not open to ordinary visitation by the public, the 2012 schedule for ferry trips to the island can be found online at the website for the Friends of Outer Island.<ref name=\"water-taxi\">\"Forms and Schedules.\" ''Friends of Outer Island''. Friends of Outer Island, 2012. Web. 29 May 2012. <http</ins>://www.<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">friendsofouterisland</ins>.org/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Page5.html>.<</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Russian Beach ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">As part of its online description of Russian Beach, the Town of Stratford website portrays a photograph of ''O. humifusa''<ref name=\"townofstratford\">\"Russian Beach.\" Town of Stratford. Town of Stratford, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://www.townofstratford.com/content/1302/402/625/1100/5066/5107.aspx></ref>.\u00a0 Presumably, the cactus can be found at Russin Beach.\u00a0 A map of Russian Beach, as well as access information, is available from the Connecticut Coastal Access Guide.<ref name=\"russianbeachmap\">\"Russian Beach.\" Connecticut Coastal Access Guide. Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http</ins>:/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">/www.lisrc.uconn.edu/coastalaccess/sitemap.asp?siteid=339&act=1&mapaction=8&maptool=3>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Scott Cove Colony (Darien) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The presence of ''O. humifusa'' at Scott Cove in Darien, Connecticut was noted in a series of records dated November 9, 2010 which describe an application to build a residential dock in that cove.<ref name=\"darien-application\">State of Connecticut. Department of Environmental Protection, Office of Adjudications. ''Coastal Permit Application </ins>#<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">200701968: Installation of a Pier, Ramp and Floating Dock, Town of Darien''. Hartford: Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, 2010. Web. <http://www.ct.gov/dep/lib/dep/adjudications/decisions_pdf/110910reynoldsproposedfinaldecision.pdf>.</ref>\u00a0 The correspondence was produced by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (CTDEEP) Office of Adjudications.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The investigation conducted by the CTDEEP found that special revisions to the application had to be made in order to protect \"Eastern Prickly Pear, identified near the landward edge of the proposed dock\".\u00a0 Based upon the proposed location of the dock, the cluster of ''O. humifusa'' is most likely at or within range of these coordinates: 41.059723&deg;, -73.463757&deg;.\u00a0 Further examination of the small cove using satellite imagery revealed other large rocky outcrops where ''O. humifusa'' may grow as well.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Because this site and the other potential habitat areas in Scott Cove are on private property, it will difficult to examine this colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Stratford Point ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In an article published by the Connecticut Audubon Society (CAS) on June 16, 2011, strong populations of ''Opuntia humifusa'' are noted as living at the Audubon-managed Stratford Point Property in Stratford, Connecticut.<ref name=\"natcons\">\"The Nature Conservancy funds development of adaptive coastal restoration plan </ins>for <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Stratford Point .\" Connecticut Audubon Society. Connecticut Audubon Society, 16 Jun 2011. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://ctaudubon.blogspot.com/2011/06/nature-conservancy-funds-development-of.html>.</ref>\u00a0 This population is further confirmed by another article published by the CAS in March 2012 which described a controlled burn of the grasslands at Stratford Point intended to prevent the succession of meadows into forest.\u00a0 Although the article text does not actually refer to ''O. humifusa'', a supporting photograph that follows the text is given the caption,\" Walking the site - picking up litter, looking at what trees to avoid burning, and here clearing a bit of brush around the Prickly Pear Cactus marked by flagging behind the small cedar to protect it.\"<ref name=\"controlledburn\">\"Controlled burn at Stratford Point!\" ''Connecticut Audubon Society''. Connecticut Audubon Society, 2 Mar 2012. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://ctaudubon.blogspot.com/2012/03/controlled-burn-at-stratford-point.html>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Introduced Colonies ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The colonies listed below are colonies which are known to be introduced into their current habitat.\u00a0 Presently, only the ''O. humifusa'' at Avery Point in Groton, Connecticut are confirmed to be introduced specimens.\u00a0 Because introduced specimens may live in areas where ''O. humifusa'' never existed historically, and because they may exhibit characteristics not found in native ''O. humifusa'', they potentially have the ability to corrupt my research data.\u00a0 Therefore, these introduced colonies are not included in the scope my research.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Avery Point Colony (Groton) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In a publication produced by the Long Island Sound Study in August 2010, it was noted that two high school interns worked to remove invasive plants from the area of the Avery Point Lighthouse in Groton, Connecticut and that ''Opuntia humifusa'', amongst other native plants, were established in their place.<ref name=\"liss-2010\">''2008 Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan Implementation Tracking Report''. The Long Island Sound Study, 2010. 55. Web. <http://longislandsoundstudy.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Combined-Document-2009-TMReport1.pdf>.</ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">It is not known if these ''O. humifusa'' were established in a \"natural setting\" or a proper garden.\u00a0 Either way, these plants represent a known introduced colony and are therefore outside the scope of my research.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Inconclusive Explorations ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A major portion of my survey of Connecticut's ''Opuntia humifusa'' involves attempting to locate colonies which were confirmed to have existed historically, but for which there is little or no modern data which confirms or denies their continued existence.\u00a0 Originally, this area of my research relied primarily upon the mention of ''O. humifusa'' in historic books (that is, books published at least 75 years ago).\u00a0 However, with the discovery of the George Safford Torrey Virtual Herbarium, my research focus has shifted to those places where botanists have historically collected professionally-verified specimens of ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">While herbarium specimens are now the basis of my research and explorations, I have kept other historic references to certain colonies in the overviews below.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Naugatuck State Forest (Beacon Hill Area) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The presence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' in Beacon Falls, Connecticut is only known through historic records.\u00a0 This includes two herbarium specimens (one of which was collected in 1892 and the other collected most likely between 1900 and 1910), one brief reference in a book published in 1896 and one brief reference in a book published in 1910.\u00a0 From 1911 and onward, it would seem that no further mention of this colony has been made in any published literature, scientific or otherwise.\u00a0 Thus, it is difficult to say with any certainty whether or not this colony still exists.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Historic Information ==== </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The earliest, and the most reliable, record of ''Opuntia humifusa'' living in Beacon Falls, Connecticut comes from the George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn which contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected by E. H. Eames on July 6, 1892.<ref name=\"gst-herbarium\">''The George Safford Torrey Herbarium''. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, n.d. Web. 4 May 2012. <http://bgbaseserver.eeb.uconn.edu/database.html>.</ref>\u00a0 The collection location is listed simply as \"Beacon Falls\".\u00a0 Of note, the herbarium specimen includes a flower bud, indicating that the plant collected by Eames was at least healthy enough to produce flowers.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The next reference to ''O. humifusa'' in Beacon Falls appears in [[The Town and City of Waterbury, Connecticut, Volume 1</ins>]<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">], published in 1896 by Sarah Johnson Prichard, which mentions that \"the prickly pear is common on the summit of Beacon Hill, just south of the line of ancient Waterbury\".<ref name=\"waterbury\">Prichard, Sarah Johnson. ''The Town and City of Waterbury, Connecticut''. 1. Waterbury: The Price & Lee Company, 1896. 11. Print. <http://books.google.com/books?id=U_QLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Another specimen of ''O. humifusa'' can be found in the Yale University Herbarium (YPM CBS 016314)<ref name=\"yuh\">\"YPM Botany - Online Catalog.\" ''Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History''. Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, n.d. Web. 16 May 2012. <http://peabody.yale.edu/collections/botany>.</ref>.\u00a0 There is no collection date associated with the herbarium record.\u00a0 However, the collector of this specimen, H. S. Clark, was also the collector of specimens from other towns that date to 1903 and 1906.\u00a0 Thus, it is likely that the collection date of this specimen is in the same general timeframe between 1900 and 1910.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The latest reference to ''O. humifusa'' living in Beacon Falls occurs in a 1910 publication, \"[</ins>[<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut Growing Without Cultivation]]\", authored by Charles Burr Graves.\u00a0 Graves briefly mentions that ''O. humifusa'' can be found in \"Naugatuck and Beacon Falls\".<ref name=\"catalogue-1910\">Graves, Charles Burr. Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut Growing Without Cultivation. 14. State Geological and Natural History Survey, 1910. eBook. <http://books.google.com/books?id=SSQwAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=opuntia&f=false>.</ref>\u00a0 Graves attributes this assertion to J. K. Goodrich, though I have been unable to find any published material by Goodrich which might provide further information.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Preliminary Assessment ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Examination of satellite imagery of Beacon Hill area reveals several promising locations for the presence of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 The area of Beacon Hill is now contained within the Naugatuck State Forest.\u00a0 Entrance to the state forest is via a blue-blazed trail.\u00a0 However, the trail itself does not pass through the promising habitat areas.\u00a0 If unmarked side trails aren't present from the blue-blazed trail, then considerable bush-whacking will be required to explore the potential habitat areas.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== April 19, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On April 19, 2012, I conducted an on-site exploration during which I thoroughly inspected roughly 30% of the possible habitat areas that I originally identified on Beacon Hill through examination of satellite imagery.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The promising areas that I explored are essentially high-elevation clearings on the southwestern slopes of Beacon Hill where the bedrock is exceptionally close to the surface.\u00a0 Tree growth was minimal on these patches due to a lack of soil and, perhaps, harsh environmental conditions.\u00a0 This presented at least two promising factors for the existence of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 First of all, the elevation of these areas means that they are, more than likely, slightly warmer than the surrounding valleys (where colder air is apt to pool).\u00a0 Second, the openness of the clearings offers considerable exposure to sunlight.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== May 5, 2012 =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A second exploration was conducted of promising areas further west-southwest of the original exploration area.\u00a0 Another 30% to 40% of the potential habitat locations was investigated, most of which was essentially similar to the habitat discovered during my first exploration.\u00a0 Again, no evidence of 'O. humifusa' presence could be located.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Status ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">I have not explored all of the possible locations on Beacon Hill where ''O. humifusa'' may currently live.\u00a0 However, I ''have'' thoroughly examined a very large percentage of those areas (at least 60% to 70%).\u00a0 Because the remaining unexplored locations are in close proximity to the areas that I have already explored, and because the the unexplored areas most likely share similar or nearly identical habitat conditions, I am skeptical that ''O. humifusa'' still lives on Beacon Hill.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"> </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Until I explore every individual ledge on Beacon Hill, however, I will not be able to say for certain that ''O. humifusa'' is extinct on that mountain.\u00a0 My examination of confirmed colonies of ''O. humifusa'' in both Plainville and New Haven has revealed that the plant may flourish in extremely isolated areas despite being in very close proximity to relatively large areas of similar habitat.\u00a0 Therefore, it is entirely possible that one of the few ledges on Beacon Hill which I did not investigate may contain a colony of ''O. humifusa'' which, for one reason or another, has been unable expand its range to similar habitats on nearby ledges.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Exploration Location ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">This exploration involved an improvised loop hike of approximately 2.88 miles throughout the Naugatuck State Forest in the area of Beacon Hill in Beacon Falls, Connecticut.\u00a0 Please note that the habitat area which I explored was ''not'' found along the widely-used blue-blazed trail.\u00a0 Reaching the exploration area on the southwestern slope of Beacon Hill required considerable hiking on trails which aren't seen in the CFPA map of Naugatuck State Forest.\u00a0 Bush-whacking was also necessitated in some instances.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>To download the GPS tracklog of this exploration (KML\u00a0 format), [[Media:Naugatuck-State-Forest-Beacon-Hill-Area-(Prickly-Pear-Cactus).kml|click here]].</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ul></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">==== Possible Explanations for Absence ====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Given that the presence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' in Beacon Falls between the 1890s and early 1900s is confirmed, there are two distinct possibilities that might explain my inability to locate any of the cacti in modern times.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== Imprecise Historical Literature =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">For one, the herbarium specimens of ''O. humifusa'' are the primary pieces of evidence confirming their presence in Beacon Falls.\u00a0 However, neither of these herbarium records actually state that the plants were found on Beacon Hill; they simply relate the collection location as \"Beacon Falls\".\u00a0 Hypothetically, this could mean that the herbarium specimens were harvested anywhere within the boundaries of Beacon Falls.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The single piece of historical literature which actually pinpointed the location of ''O. humifusa'' on Beacon Hill was Prichard's book on the history of nearby Waterbury.\u00a0 While Prichard may have been fairly knowledgeable on the topic of Waterbury, there is no evidence that she possessed the same depth of knowledge concerning neighboring Beacon Falls.\u00a0 It may well be that when Prichard wrote that \"the prickly pear is common on the summit of Beacon Hill, just south of the line of ancient Waterbury\", she was simply using Beacon Hill as a general landmark with which most people of that day would be familiar.\u00a0 It could well have been that the cacti never actually existed on Beacon Hill, but instead existed on some unnamed hill within the same general region.\u00a0 Prichard would simply have referred to it as \"Beacon Hill\" for lack of a better-known landmark.\u00a0 In that case, it is possible that the cacti could instead exist on or around the bald cliffs to the west (on the opposite side of Route 8).\u00a0 I have yet to investigate this alternate location, but will do so as time permits.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">===== Local Extirpation =====</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Perhaps a more likely scenario is that ''O. humifusa'' did in fact exist on Beacon Hill between 1890 and 1910, and that it may have continued to flourish for some decades afterwards.\u00a0 We can assume that Beacon Hill probably would have been sparsely wooded around the turn of the 20th-century, perhaps even largely devoid of trees.\u00a0 The area of Beacon Hill may well have been cleared to some degree to make room for pasture land and, to a lesser degree, for lumber.\u00a0 The lack of competition from trees on Beacon Hill would've meant that cacti could take advantage of full sun on the well-drained soil upon the mountain.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">However, as the case has been with most old pasture land in Connecticut, the use of Beacon Hill as a grazing area would have expired no later than the very early 1900s, perhaps earlier.\u00a0 In the time that followed, trees would have been able to begin taking root and growing, eventually culminating in the mature forest and solid woodland canopy that covers the mountain today.\u00a0 If this scenario is correct, and it seems that it is, this would mean that the cacti documented on Beacon Hill in the 1890s and early 1900s would have ultimately been doomed.\u00a0 With each passing decade, the tree cover would've expanded and thickened.\u00a0 In time, any colonies of ''O. humifusa'' living upon the mountain would literally have been shaded out.\u00a0 Perhaps they could've persisted in the light shade of younger trees for a decade or two, but as the canopy grew more dense, cutting off light to the ground, the cacti would've first lost their ability to flower, and then lost their ability to gather enough sunlight nourish themselves.\u00a0 At that point, the cacti would've perished fairly quickly, leaving behind no evidence of their presence.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Although this scenario comports quite closely with the known agricultural and ecological history of the Connecticut landscape, what evidence is there that conclusively suggests this pattern of local extirpation actually occurred?</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">For one thing, aerial photography from the early 1930s reveals that the forest upon Beacon Hill was still somewhat sparse by comparison to the modern forest we see today.\u00a0 In fact, there were still some cleared parcels of land upon the hill which appear to have been farms of some kind (perhaps tree farms).\u00a0 Thus, we know that only sparse forest existed on Beacon Hill some 20 to 30 years after ''O. humifusa'' was documented there.\u00a0 The presence of sparse forest could hypothetically be explained in various ways.\u00a0 For example, it could have been that the forest was thinned for lumber in the late 1920s.\u00a0 Perhaps a forest fire tore through the forest in the 1910s, leaving only select fire-hardy trees.\u00a0 Although these possibilities cannot be ruled out, they aren't especially likely.\u00a0 In the 1920s, it is more probable that a lumbering venture would've simply clear-cut the entire area rather than merely thinning the forest.\u00a0 The notion that a forest fire thinned the forest is perhaps plausible, but I cannot find any historical evidence of such an extensive forest fire in that area.\u00a0 It is most probable that the sparse forest was actually just immature forest; the result of young \"pioneer\" trees growing upon land that had been entirely clear of significant tree growth at least one or two decades earlier.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Unsuccessful Explorations ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Powerline Cut (Middletown) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On May 17, 2012, I conducted an exploration of 1.14 miles of terrain (~2.3 mile out-and-back hike) along a powerline cut in Middletown, beginning at Bartholomew Road and terminating at Route 9.\u00a0 The terrain along the powerline cut is a combination of meadow and rocky outcrops with elevations concentrated between 450 and 550 feet above mean sea level (AMSL), though maximum elevation reaches approximately 580 feet AMSL and minimum elevation drops as low as 330 feet AMSL.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">This exploration was launched after I spotted dry, rocky outcrops beside the road while driving along Route 9 in Middletown.\u00a0 I thought I had seen a few ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar) which, in combination with the xeric, rocky character of the powerline cut, seemed to suggest it may offer suitable habitat for ''Opuntia humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">After a very thorough investigation of all of the rocky outcrops along the full-length of the powerline cut, I have not discovered any evidence of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 In addition, the coniferous trees I had seen were confirmed not to be ''Juniperus'' sp.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The rocky outcrops along the powerline did seem suitable as cacti habitat, offering xeric conditions with well-drained soil and full exposure to sunlight.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">A post-exploration review of soil types present along the powerline cut revealed a rather broad diversity of soil types which weren't necessarily known to be conducive to ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 These soil types included '''Catden and Freetown soils''' (Soil Type 18), '''Timakwa and Natchaug soils''' (Soil Type 17), '''Charlton-Chatfield complex''' (Soil Type 73E), '''Ridgebury, Leicester, and Whitman soils, extremely stony''' (Soil Type 3), '''Hollis-Chatfield-Rock outcrop complex''' (Soil Types 75C and 75E).\u00a0 At the time of the exploration, none of these various soil types had been observed at known ''O. humifusa'' habitat in Connecticut.\u00a0 My later discovery of the Ingham Hill Colony, however, indicates that Charlton-Chatfield Complex does, in fact, provide suitable soil for ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== High Rock Mountain (Bethany & Hamden) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">On May 19, 2012, I conducted an exploration of rocky outcrops on High Rock Mountain, accessible along the blue-blazed Quinnipiac Trail.\u00a0 I accessed the trail from Brooks Road in Bethany and hiked the Quinnipiac Trail to the bald ridges on High Rock Mountain in Hamden (~2.75 mile loop hike).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">My prior research suggested that High Rock Mountain offered excellent habitat for ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 The rocky outcrops consist entirely of Holyoke-Rocky Outcrop Complex (Soil Types 78C and 78E), a soil type known to be associated with all confirmed ''O. humifusa'' sites in New Haven, Hamden and Plainville.\u00a0 The rocky outcrops that I investigated are also designated by CTECO GIS maps as Subacidic Rocky Outcrops (SubRSO), a critical habitat type with which ''O. humifusa'' is closely associated in both New Haven and Hamden on West Rock Ridge.\u00a0 In addition, these rocky outcrops on High Rock Mountain are less than one mile from large colonies of ''O. humifusa'' that I've observed in Hamden at the northern extent of West Rock Ridge State Park.\u00a0 When factored together, all of these characteristics seemed to indicate a very high probability of ''O. humifusa'' colonization on High Rock Mountain.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The entire exploration, however, revealed no evidence of ''O. humifusa'' on High Rock Mountain.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The rocky outcrops that were targeted during my exploration exhibited the presence of ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar), a known indicator species of ''O. humifusa'' on this type of terrain.\u00a0 This raised the probability of finding ''O. humifusa'' even higher.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">However, if any feature of this terrain was inconducive to ''O. humifusa'', it was a lack of full exposure to sunlight.\u00a0 The rocky outcrops on High Rock Mountain were too tightly crowded by forest, leaving little room for the shade-intolerant ''O. humifusa'' to take hold.\u00a0 There were a few areas which offered sufficient sunlight exposure, but they were few and far between.\u00a0 In addition, it seemed that many of the larger, exposed areas were home to an unusually high diversity of herbaceous plants which would probably out-compete ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Other Historical Locations ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Below is a list of towns where ''Opuntia humifusa'' was found historically.\u00a0 This information is derived primarily from herbarium records, but also historical books.\u00a0 All of the supporting resources referenced here are at least 10 years old, but most are considerably older (many are greater than 100 years old).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">It is entirely possible that, in some cases, the historical colonies from which these specimens were collected correspond with extant colonies that I have documented.\u00a0 However, because all of the historical resources listed here refer to collection locations so vaguely, it is difficult or impossible to say for sure.\u00a0 For example, in 1822 a botanist by the name of H. N. Fenn collected a specimen of ''O. humifusa'' from New Haven, Connecticut.\u00a0 Since Fenn did not include specifics about the collection location, it is impossible to say whether or not he harvested his specimen from the earlier ancestors of the modern populations at West Rock Ridge (which I have documented) or from some different location where ''O. humifusa'' no longer exists.\u00a0 For this reason, the historical data presented below occasionally overlaps with towns at which I have documented modern ''O. humifusa'' colonies.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">There is little or no information available that can confirm or deny the continued existence of ''O. humifusa'' at some of the towns listed below.\u00a0 These places include Scotland, Naugatuck, Oxford, Seymour and Wilton.\u00a0 ''O. humifusa'' undoubtedly grew wild at one time in these municipalities, but no record of the continued existence of the cactus have been found in over a century.\u00a0 The only way to know for sure would involve a thorough exploration of all possible habitat area in those towns (a task which could easily take years).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Branford (General Area, Stony Creek & Kelsey Island) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected in Branford, Connecticut by W. H. Brewer in 1852 (YPM YU 051550).<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a second specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected at Stony Creek by J. H. Buell on July 1, 1874 (YPM YU 051549)<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>.\u00a0 Stony Creek is not an incorporated town in Connecticut, but rather a census-designated place within Branford.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected in Branford on September 22, 1998 by William H. Moorhead III in Branford, Connecticut (CONN Accession #122327).\u00a0 The collection location is rather precisely revealed as \"sunny outcrops of pink bedrock (mapped as granitic gneiss)\" on the \"northeast end\" of Kelsey Island.<ref name=\"gsth\">''The George Safford Torrey Herbarium (CONN)''. University of Connecticut, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, n.d. Web. 16 May 2012.</ref>\u00a0 The elevation of the collection site is recorded as being 3 meters (9.8 feet) above sea level.\u00a0 Moorhead elaborates even further, noting that the ''O. humifusa'' plants from which he harvested fruits were \"on sub-level to gently moderately sloping surfaces.\"\u00a0 Interestingly, he adds that ''O. humifusa'' can also be found \"in similar habitat at northern end of smaller upland island northwest of main island, and in house yards on mainland north of island.\"\u00a0 Since the collection date for this specimen is relatively recent, there is a very good possibility that the cactus colony from which it was harvested still exists.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Bridgeport ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected on July 7, 1909 by E. H. Eames from a \"dry exposed ledge\" in Bridgeport, Connecticut (CONN Accession #105615).\u00a0 The elevation of the collection site is noted as 3 feet above sea level.<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Burlington (Burlington Mountain) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected on July 25, 1908 from Burlington, Connecticut (CONN Accession #101928).\u00a0 The collection location is further identified as Burlington Mountain.<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In modern times, it doesn't appear that there is any landform known officially as Burlington Mountain within the town, a fact which complicates the task of trying to determine where this colony would have existed over a century ago.\u00a0 Historical maps from the mid-1800s don't show any labelled landmark by the name of \"Burlington Mountain\", even though Burlington Mountain is referred to briefly in a few texts dating the first decade of the 20th century.\u00a0 None of the historic texts provide any clues at what modern mountain was once called Burlington Mountain.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Clinton ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa vulgaris'' collected in Clinton, Connecticut by J. H. Buell on August 7, 1960 (YPM CBS 016311).\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Franklin ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected on May 11, 1916 from \"rocky open woods\" in Franklin, Connecticut (CONN Accession #161634).<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Guilford (General Area & Leetes Island) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa vulgaris'' collected in Guilford, Connecticut by C. H. Bissell on July 16, 1897 (YPM CBS 016313)<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In a 1910 publication titled \"Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut Growing Without Cultivation\", author Charles B. Graves notes Guilford as a town known to support wild ''O. humifusa'' at that time.<ref name=\"catalogue-1910\"></ref>\u00a0 Graves also separately mentions North Guilford, however there is no such incorporated town in Connecticut and he was likely referring to the northern sections of Guilford.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected in Guilford, Connecticut on August 27, 1950 by G. S. Torrey (CONN Accession #161634).\u00a0 The collection location is described as \"ledges in scrubby pasture\" at Leetes Island.<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 The record also notes that this collection was performed with the Connecticut Botanical Society, which may possibly still have field records pertinent to this ''O. humifusa'' colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Milford ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia rafinesquii'' collected on July 7, 1893 by E. H. Eames from \"dry soil on rocks\" in Milford, Connecticut (CONN Accession #161629).<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Because such vague location data is provided with this specimen, it is difficult to say whether or not Eames harvested this specimen from the same colony that I've confirmed to exist currently in Milford (Milford Point Colony).\u00a0 It is unlikely, however, because the Milford Point Colony is not at all rocky.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Naugatuck ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa vulgaris'' collected in Naugatuck, Connecticut by A. E. Blewitt on May 30, 1907 (YPM CBS 016310).\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In a 1910 publication titled \"Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut Growing Without Cultivation\", author Charles B. Graves notes Naugatuck as a town known to support wild ''O. humifusa'' at that time.<ref name=\"catalogue-1910\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== New Haven ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected in New Haven, Connecticut by H. N. Fenn in 1822 (YPM YU 070465).<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''O. humifusa'' collected in New Haven, Connecticut in July 1886 (YPM YU 051546).<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''O. humifusa'' collected at \"Lighthouse Point\" in New Haven, Connecticut by L. Brown on August 23, 1988 (YPM YU 051547).<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Old Lyme (General Area & McCurdy Road) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected in Old Lyme, Connecticut on April 21, 1941 by Wilfred J. Latham (CONN Accession #161630).<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 The elevation of the collection site is noted as 26 feet above sea level.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa vulgaris'' collected in Old Lyme, Connecticut by T. O. Hendrickson on September 29, 1988 (YPM CBS 016309).\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia compressa'' collected in Old Lyme, Connecticut on June 8, 1996 by Leslie John Mehrhoff.\u00a0 The collection location is rather precisely revealed as the \"east side of McCurdy Road near entrance to Old Lyme Country Club\".<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 Since the collection date for this specimen is relatively recent, there is a good possibility that the cactus colony from which it was harvested still exists.\u00a0 However, the fact that the specimen was collected from the \"Old Lyme Country Club\" suggests that it may have been from a cultivated garden.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Oxford ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In a 1910 publication titled \"Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut Growing Without Cultivation\", author Charles B. Graves notes Oxford as a town known to support wild ''O. humifusa'' at that time.<ref name=\"catalogue-1910\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Scotland ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected on May 10, 1906 by Hugh S. Clark in Scotland, Connecticut (CONN Accession #05903).\u00a0 The elevation of the collection site is noted as being 279 feet above sea level.<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa vulgaris'' collected in Scotland, Connecticut by C. H. Bissell on May 30, 1906 (YPM CBS 016312)<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>, only 20 days after Clark harvested his own specimen from Scotland.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Finally, in a 1910 publication titled \"Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut Growing Without Cultivation\", author Charles B. Graves notes Scotland as a town known to support wild ''O. humifusa'' at that time.<ref name=\"catalogue-1910\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Seymour ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected on June 7, 1903 by H. S. Clark in Seymour, Connecticut (CONN Accession #161633).\u00a0 The elevation of the collection site is noted as being 102 feet above sea level.<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium also contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' collected in Seymour, Connecticut by H. S. Clark (YPM CBS 025967)<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.\u00a0 No date is associated with this specimen, however it may well have been collected the same day as the specimen contained in the Torrey Herbarium.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In a 1910 publication titled \"Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut Growing Without Cultivation\", author Charles B. Graves notes Seymour as a town known to support wild ''O. humifusa'' at that time.<ref name=\"catalogue-1910\"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Stratford (General Area & Housatonic River) ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa '' collected in Stratford, Connecticut by A. L. Winton in June 1883 (YPM YU 051548)<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa '' collected in Stratford, Connecticut by C. H. Bissell on July 17, 1901 (YPM CBS 025966)<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected on September 10, 1904 \"near [the] Housatonic River\" in Stratford, Connecticut (CONN Accession #05904).<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Yale University Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa '' collected in Stratford, Connecticut by D. C. Tank on May 19, 2007 (YPM YU 100036)<ref name=\"yuh\"></ref>.\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Westbrook ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains a specimen of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected on April 16, 1934 by Howard Merrill from \"rocky sterile soil\" in Westbrook, Connecticut (CONN Accession #161632).\u00a0 The elevation of the collection site is noted as being 36 feet above sea level.<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Westport ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The George Safford Torrey Herbarium at UConn contains two specimens of ''Opuntia vulgaris'' collected on May 1, 1909 by E. H. Eames from an \"exposed ledge\" in Westport, Connecticut (CONN Accession #105616 and #04642).\u00a0 The elevation of collection site is stated as 30 feet above sea level.<ref name=\"gsth\"></ref>\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Wilton ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The Connecticut Botanical Society Herbarium contains a specimen of ''Opuntia humifusa'' ssp. ''vulgaris'' collected in Wilton, Connecticut by Anna E. Carpenter on July 11, 1924 (CBS.016308).\u00a0 No further specifics are provided concerning the location of the colony from which the specimen was harvested.<ref name=\"cbsh\">\"Connecticut Botanical Society.\" ''Consortium of Northeastern Herbaria''. Consortium of Northeastern Herbaria, n.d. Web. 17 May 2012. <http://neherbaria.org/unitedstates></ref></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Theories & Unanswered Questions ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Perhaps the most surprising discovery throughout the course of my explorations for Connecticut's ''Opuntia humifusa'' (aside from the cacti themselves) has been the realization that remarkably little is known about this cactus.\u00a0 Thus, one of the goals of my research has been to try and better understand the ecology of these cacti in Connecticut through observing them directly.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Below are a series of questions and tentative answers that I've assembled.\u00a0 In most cases, I can offer only observations, suggestions and theories.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== How did it get there? ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">'''What accounts for the ability of a colony of ''O. humifusa'' to exist as far as 20 miles from the nearest neighboring colony?\u00a0 How did the cactus make such a huge leap without any intermediate colonies?'''\u00a0 </ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Granted, this questions seems rather simple.\u00a0 But, the fact of the matter is that surprisingly minimal research has been invested in answering this question.\u00a0 Furthermore, the answer is exceptionally important in understanding the fragmented and sometimes boggling distribution of ''O. humifusa'' in Connecticut.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Before I begin, I'll briefly clarify that there are only two basic ways that ''O. humifusa'' can produce independent off-spring.\u00a0 The first is vegetative, meaning that whenever a cladode becomes detached from the parent plant and hits the ground, it stands a fair chance of sinking its own roots and becoming an independent plant.\u00a0 The second method is by seed.\u00a0 The fruits, or \"pears\", of ''O. humifusa'' contain seeds and wherever the fruits go, the seeds accompany.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">First off, we know that the wind is not strong enough to carry a detached cladode or fruit more than perhaps a foot or two from the parent plant.\u00a0 Under extremely windy conditions, with the right topography, perhaps the wind could move plant pieces even further; I'll say a maximum of 10 to 15 feet, though that would truly exceptional.\u00a0 This mechanical force may be sufficient to push a detached cladode or fruit over a nearby cliff, at which point it might land on a rocky terrace and begin a new colony.\u00a0 But certainly, the wind cannot carry a cladode for any significant distance across a landscape.\u00a0 So, we can say with certainty that ''O. humifusa'' does not disperse long distances of its own ingenuity, in the sense that a dandelion can potentially fly its kite-like seeds for several miles.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Second, I have frequently observed droppings amongst ''O. humifusa'' colonies which appear to be from small mammals, most likely rabbits.\u00a0 And, indeed, studies in Kansas in the 1940s revealed that rabbits were known to feed upon both the fruits and cladodes of ''O. humifusa''<ref name=\"kansas\">Riegel, Andrew. \"Some Coactions of Rabbits and Rodents with Cactus.\" ''Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science''. 44. (1941): 96-103. Print. <http</ins>://www.<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">jstor</ins>.org/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">stable</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">3624871>.</ref>.\u00a0 However, the study observed that rabbits tended to limit their consumption of the cactus to those times when food was particularly scarce, when perhaps the hardy, evergreen ''O. humifusa'' might be the only green plant matter available.\u00a0 Furthermore, I cannot say that I have noticed any extensive evidence that Connecticut ''O. humifusa'' are subject to consumption by small mammals.\u00a0 In most cases, the cladodes of ''O. humifusa'' that I've observed are in remarkably pristine condition.\u00a0 Even if we were to entertain that at some point in the past there was a serious enough food shortage in Connecticut for cottontail rabbits to begin gnawing on ''O. humifusa'' plants, the potential for dispersal by this method is not exceptionally great.\u00a0 Rabbits aren't likely to detach cladodes and haul them any significant distance, and even if they did, it is further unlikely that they would lose interest in it before consuming enough to kill the vegetative potential of the broken stem.\u00a0 But then there is the possibility that the seeds of the ''O. humifusa'' pears, after being consumed, might pass through the digestive system of rabbits and be deposited elsewhere.\u00a0 This is a plausible means of dispersal to which I am open, but it still cannot explain how ''O. humifusa'' might travel a distance of several miles over rough terrain.\u00a0 The home range of any rabbit is typically restricted to a relatively small area, and no species living in Connecticut are known to migrate long distances.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The most promising theory is that ''O. humifusa'' is distributed long distances chiefly by birds.\u00a0 Birds have long been observed to consume the pears of ''O. humifusa'' and other species of ''Opuntia'' found elsewhere in the world.\u00a0 In fact, studies have shown that seeds which first pass through the digestive system of an animal will germinate more reliably and more quickly than those that simply fall from the cactus in an unscathed pear<ref name=\"us-forest-service\"></ref>.\u00a0 Since birds can potentially travel enormous distances over terrain that would be challenging for terrestrial animals, as well as deposit their droppings from the air in relatively random locations, it becomes clear that birds must have played a decisive role in distributing ''O. humifusa'' across Connecticut.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">When we add birds to the equation, there ceases to be any mystery behind how ''O. humifusa'' might have appeared on a high ledge along a ridge or in an isolated glade deep within the forest.\u00a0 While all of these locations seem like relatively inaccessible locations to man and other mammals, they are simply another place for traveling birds to land or \"lighten the load\", so to speak, while flying high above.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Why ''aren't'' they there? ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Another question that is sometimes puzzling is why, within fairly large stretches of potentially excellent habitat, there seems to be no trace of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 The answer to this question is three-fold.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">To begin with, even though birds offer the most promising mode of dispersal for ''O. humifusa'', a substantial amount of luck is required for this dispersal mechanism to succeed.\u00a0 Distribution by birds occurs when they defecate, depositing the seeds in their waste.\u00a0 But birds are in no way selective about where they choose to defecate, generally doing so whenever the urge strikes, either while they are flying or while they are perched.\u00a0 When you consider the very specific habitat requirements of ''O. humifusa'', it is no surprise that the vast majority of ''O. humifusa'' seeds are deposited in bird droppings in habitat areas that entirely incompatible with the needs of the cactus.\u00a0 Only by sheer luck will a bird that has been feeding on cactus pears happen to defecate in a spot which satisfies all of the criteria for those seeds to give rise to a mature plant (well-drained soil, full sun, minimal competing plants).</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">But let's say that a given seed, despite the overwhelming odds, is deposited by a bird on a perfect traprock ledge in Connecticut, replete with sandy soil and full sunlight.\u00a0 Even still, there is only about a 25% chance that the seed will prove viable.\u00a0 A number of factors can influence the relatively low likelihood of O. humifusa being dispersed to a wholly new habitat area, such as the following:</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ol></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">50% of the seeds produced by ''O. humifusa'' aren't eaten in the first place</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">95% of the seeds consumed by birds are dispersed in unsuitable habitat</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">75% of the seeds that are deposited on ideal habitat will not actually germinate</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ol></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Considering all of these factors, there would only be a 0.75% chance that any given seed will be eaten by a bird, deposited on good habitat and actually germinate.\u00a0 And, in truth, everyone of the above estimated percentages is probably far too optimistic in favor of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 If we were more skeptical in all three of the cases above, then the adjusted chance of successful dispersal and germination for any given seed would probably be significantly lower.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Furthermore, we must consider that even those seeds which have successfully germinated are then subject any number of disturbances, for the resilience attributed to mature ''O. humifusa'' plants does not necessarily extend to small, immature specimens.\u00a0 A newly-sprouted cactus will spend much of its first growing season barely larger than a thimble; it might incidentally be trampled by a hiker, crushed beneath a fallen tree branch, consumed by insects, or freeze to death during an unusually extreme cold snap during its first winter.\u00a0 When we factor this into the odds, the likelihood that a given ''O. humifusa'' plant will produce a seed which will be consumed by a bird, dispersed to a new habitat area, germinate and ultimately mature into a large, healthy, resilient plant are probably disparagingly low... somewhere in the range of 1:10,000 and 1:100,000).\u00a0 Thus, it is understandable that it could take decades, perhaps even centuries, for ''O. humifusa'' to become established in new territory.\u00a0 It is partially for this very reason that the cactus receives recognition as a Connecticut Species of </ins>Special <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Concern, for the destruction of a given colony in a certain town may very well mean that ''O. humifusa'' will be gone from that place for an extremely long time before it can be re-colonized.\u00a0 In fact, the undeveloped landscapes of many towns have become so thickly reforested in the last 150 years that the remaining available habitat for ''O. humifusa'' is incredibly small; in these cases, if the existing cactus population was lost, the likelihood of re-colonization from a coastal colony is so low that, for all intents and purposes, it would be appropriate to declare them permanently extirpated from those towns.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">In many cases, areas devoid of cacti that would seem to present excellent habitat have likely experienced considerable changes to the face of the landscape over the last 150 years, meaning that suitable habitat may not have existed even in very recent history.\u00a0 Powerline cuts, for example, oftentimes offer what would seem to be remarkably good habitat the cactus, but despite all of my research and a few field explorations, I have found no evidence that ''O. humifusa'' has been capable of colonizing these areas yet.\u00a0 It may simply be that these features of the landscape were too recently constructed and that the long-range dispersal characteristics of ''O. humifusa'' prevent it from quickly taking advantage of these places.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== How can colonies at the coastline become so well-dispersed? ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">If we consider the two questions and answers above, it is clear that ''O. humifusa'' colonizes new habitat areas very, very slowly.\u00a0 But if we should believe the above assertions to be accurate, then how can a stronghold such as the Long Beach Complex possibly exist?\u00a0 To summarize, the Long Beach Complex includes literally hundreds of cacti scattered over upon a 1.5-mile stretch of the Long Beach Peninsula.\u00a0 If ''O. humifusa'' has so aggressively colonized Long Beach, why can't it do the same elsewhere?\u00a0 The answer to this question rests solely upon a series of beneficial conditions which converge on the Long Beach Peninsula to truly favor the expansion of ''O. humifusa''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">For starters, we have already established that birds are the primary vector for ''O. humifusa'' seed dispersal.\u00a0 In the case of inland colonies, the species of birds that feed upon pears, as well as the frequency with which the plants are visited, is probably extremely variable.\u00a0 Coastal areas, however, have served as nesting sites of various seabirds since prehistory.\u00a0 These coastal nesting sites, which include Long Beach Peninsula, offer unusually high numbers of nesting birds which are tethered to the immediate landscape for several months at a time.\u00a0 This means that, wherever nesting sites host a population of ''O. humifusa'', the cacti are literally at the dead-center of a dispersal hotspot where pears are routinely foraged by resident seabirds.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Furthermore, unlike inland sites that are typically surrounded by thick woodlands, coastal sites such as Long Beach offer an extremely high ratio of suitable habitat per acre.\u00a0 Long Beach Peninsula is ripe with wide swaths of open dunes and scrubland, all of which are steeped in direct sunlight and enjoy wintertime low temperatures that are slightly warmer than those experienced at inland locations.\u00a0 In short, the majority of the landscape on coastal sites tends to be accommodating of the needs of ''O. humifusa'', while a comparatively minute percentage of the inland landscape can provide for the complex needs of the cactus.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Let's consider these more optimal conditions in the same format that we considered them above</ins>:</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ol></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">25% of the seeds produced by ''O. humifusa'' aren't eaten in the first place</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">40% of the seeds consumed by birds are dispersed in unsuitable habitat</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">75% of the seeds that are deposited on ideal habitat will not actually germinate</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><</ins>/<ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">ol></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">As we can see here, the higher population and longer residence of birds, when coupled with the abundance of suitable cactus habitat, means that the rate of successful short-distance dispersal and germination increases to roughly 11% on coastal sites like Long Beach Peninsula.\u00a0 While not staggeringly high, this represents a drastic increase over dispersal rates experienced inland.\u00a0 Thus, the abundance of ''O. humifusa'' on Long Beach Peninsula can be explained as an example of a series of ecological conditions which conspire to help ''O. humifusa'' thrive to a degree that is otherwise unthinkable in most other environments.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">=== Why are some inland colonies so isolated despite abundant habitat very nearby? ===</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">This may seem to be a repetition of a question that has already been discussed.\u00a0 However, while our previous question focused on reasons why some large area of habitat may not have ''any'' cacti, this question focuses on why seemingly suitable habitat areas that ''are in very close proximity to'' a known colony would still be oddly devoid cacti.\u00a0 For example, if an established colony of ''O. humifusa'' lives upon a south-facing ledge on a traprock ridge, why would the seemingly identical ledge only 60 feet away be devoid of the cactus?</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">The simplest explanation, which I suspect contributes only partially to this phenomenon, relates to all of the aforementioned difficulties in dispersal which I've already discussed.\u00a0 Even if a suitable ledge is only 40 feet away, the random and rather unreliable nature of dispersal by birds mean that the ledge might as well be a mile away... or several miles away... and still possess a nearly equal likelihood of being colonized.\u00a0 However, I would submit that in many of these cases, the supposedly \"identical\" nearby ledges aren't actually as identical as they might seem to an ordinary observer.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">While it is true that the majority of inland cacti colonies are found upon traprock ledges, we must temper this finding with the observation that an overwhelming majority of traprock ledges in Connecticut do not, and never have, supported colonies of ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 I interpret this as an indication that traprock ridges generally '''do not offer suitable habitat for the cactus'''.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">As we know, ''O. humifusa'' has a series of requirements that must be met in order thrive in a given habitat.\u00a0 They are as follows</ins>:</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><ol></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Temperatures should not drop below 0&deg;F.'''\u00a0 If they do, it should be an exceptionally rare occurrence which takes place only once every few years.\u00a0 Otherwise, young cacti would probably die before becoming firmly-established enough to weather these rare cold spells.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''At least six hours of unobstructed sunlight must be available every day.'''\u00a0 Established cacti can tolerate as little as perhaps four hours, but young plants would suffer considerable stress and growth deformities with such reduced light exposure.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Neighboring trees and competing plants must not be capable of obstructing sunlight.'''\u00a0 See #2 above.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Soil must be very well-drained.'''\u00a0 Any places where water dwells for even 24 hours after a heavy rainfall are entirely unsuitable for ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 Such conditions lead to rotting of the roots, a phenomenon that will quickly kill even large, mature cacti.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Soil must be voluminous enough for cacti to firmly take root.''' Although I've observed ''O. humifusa'' growing on a 1/4\"-thick mat of dried lichen upon an otherwise bare rock face, such plants are unlikely to ever reach an advanced state of development.\u00a0 Bare rock is NOT a suitable habitat for ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 All colonies found on rocky outcrops inhabit an area of the outcrop where at least some soil has accumulated.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><li>'''Soil must be stable.'''\u00a0 In habitats where the dirt or sand can easily be moved about by wind and water, the cacti will be severely stressed, either by being periodically buried or by having their roots periodically exposed.</li></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"></ol></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Given these strict criteria, it's almost amazing that '''any''' traprock ridges are capable of supporting ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 And, indeed, most of Connecticut's inland ridges and rocky outcrops are decidedly unsuitable.\u00a0 These are habitat areas in Connecticut where ''O. humifusa'' is truly braving the fringes of its range and battling conditions which routinely conspire to destroy its presence.\u00a0 A scant few ledges scattered throughout the state possess the delicate balance of factors that produce a micro-climate that is conducive to the cactus.\u00a0 Even if a certain ledge meets 5 of the 6 criteria listed above, it still will probably prove unsuitable for ''O. humifusa''.\u00a0 In such harsh, borderline environments, every aspect of the habitat area must fall within an extremely narrow range of acceptable tolerances.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">So, while nearby ledges may seem to be practically identical to the plain sight, there could be any number of minute variations in temperature, drainage, available sunlight and available soil which might make them unsuitable in comparison... even if they are only 20 to 100 feet away from a firmly-established colony.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">When we examine the local isolation of inland colonies in light of the slow dispersal rate and complex habitat criteria of ''O. humifusa'', it is clear that \"jumping\" </ins>to <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">a nearby ledge is no easy task.\u00a0 In many cases, it may well be impossible since the plant cannot live </ins>on <ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">the nearby ledge because the temperature drops slightly lower, because the soil is too unstable, the sunlight is limited by neighboring trees, etc, etc.</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== References ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\"><references /></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">== Other Useful Links ==</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Connecticut Botanical Society<br/></ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/opuntiahumi.html Prickly-pear (''Opuntia humifusa'')]</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">Connecticut Museum Quest</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[http://www.ctmuseumquest.com Section 8: The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly]</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div>\u00a0</div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[Category:Plants of Connecticut]]</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[Category:Plants]]</ins></div></td></tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"diff-side-deleted\"></td><td class=\"diff-marker\" data-marker=\"+\"></td><td class=\"diff-addedline diff-side-added\"><div><ins class=\"diffchange diffchange-inline\">[[Category:Living Organisms]</ins>]</div></td></tr>\n"
}
}